TRIG.

FUNCTIONS AND INVERSE

Trigonometry is an important branch of mathematics that

studies angles and its relationship with triangles. These
functions that arise from angles and triangles are however also
very important in many areas of engineering and science. For
example, the electrical power system and the WiFi technology
are based on trigonometric waveforms. You should already
have some prior knowledge in trigonometry and some of the
concepts here should be more of a revision to you.

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Consider points (x, y) on the circle of radius r1 , and measure the
angle θ, in RADIANS, anticlockwise from the positive x axis.

By definition (the symbol ≡ to mean ’is defined as’):

y x y sin θ
sin θ ≡ ; cos θ ≡ ; tan θ ≡ =
r r x cos θ

1
The radius is related to the coordinates as follows: r2 = x2 + y2 using
Pythagoras Theorem.
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Q: At the point (−3, 4), what is the value of (a) sin θ; (b) cos θ; and
(c) tan θ?

Reciprocal of basic trignometric functions are defined as

1 1 1 cos θ
cosec θ ≡ ; sec θ ≡ ; cot θ = =
sin θ cos θ tan θ sin θ
NOTE: Trig. functions also known as circular functions because
of its relation to a circle as shown above.

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In calculus the angle θ is usually measured in radians but in
some areas in engineering the measure is in degree. It is very
important not to get confused between the two and to know
whether whether a given value is in radians or in degrees.
Values in degree will have a superscript o, e.g. 45o and values
in radians will not have a superscript.

It is also important to be able to convert a value from degree to

radians and vice versa. The conversion is readily achieved by
multiplication with a constant as follows:
I To convert from radians to degree: multiply radians value
by 180o /π.
I To convert from degree to radians: multiply degree value
by π/1800 .

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The table below shows degree/radians conversion for
commonly encountered angles:

Degree 0o 30o 45o 60o 90o 180o 360o

Radians 0 π/6 π/4 π/3 π/2 π 2π

Q: Convert the following value to degree (a) π/10; (b) 3π/10; and (c)
π/5?

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There are certain some special values of angles for which the
the trigonometric values can be calculated exactly without
using a calculator. They are based on the standard triangles for
which the sides and angle are known exactly using principles
from elementary geometry. The STANDARD TRIANGLES are
shown below:

√
For example, using the left triangle sin π/4 = cos π/4 = 1/ 2.

Q: Using standard triangles, calculate (a) tan π/4; (b) sin π/6; and
(c) cos π/3?

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The graphs of the basic trigonometric functions are shown
below:

If we examine the sine and cosine graphs, we see that their

shapes are essentially the same. One graph is basically the
shifted version of another. We therefore have the following
relationships between the sine and cosine functions:

sin(θ − π/2) = − cos θ

cos(θ − π/2) = sin θ

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If we examine the graphs above, we also see some symmetry
which make the trigonometric functions either even or odd:

sin(−θ) = − sin θ (odd function)

cos(−θ) = cos θ (even function)

tan(−θ) = − tan θ (odd function)

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There are many identities in trigonometry but we list some of
the more commonly used ones in practice:
cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1.
sin(A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B
cos(A ± B) = cos A cos B ∓ sin A sin B

sin(2θ) = 2 sin θ cos θ

cos(2θ) = cos2 θ − sin2 θ

= 2 cos2 θ − 1
= 1 − 2 sin2 θ

1
cos2 θ = (1 + cos(2θ))
2
1
sin2 θ = (1 − cos(2θ))
2
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INVERSE TRIG. FUNCTIONS

We discussed inverse functions in Week 1 and now we would

like to apply those concepts specifically to trigonometric
functions. The purpose is: given a sine, cosine or tangent value,
determine the corresponding angle.

Recall that an inverse function can only be defined if the

original function is one-to-one. If the function f is one-to-one,
an inverse function f −1 exists. We then have Domain[f ] =
Range[f −1 ] and Range[f ] = Domain[f −1 ].

However trig. functions are not one-to-one as can be seen from

the graphs above2 . However we can restrict their domains so
that we have one-to-one functions.

2
One can use the horizontal line test discussed in Week 1 to verify this.
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INVERSE SINE FUNCTION

Restrict the domain of y = sin x to − π2 6 x 6 π2 . Note that the

range is −1 6 y ≤ 1. The graph of the restricted domain
function is shown below

The corresponding inverse is found by swapping x and y,

−π π
i.e. x = sin y; −1 6 x 6 1, 2 6y6 2

Solving for y to get the inverse sine function denoted by

y = sin−1 x or y = arcsin x

Note that sin−1 x DOES NOT mean 1/(sin x)

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The inverse function y = sin−1 x is equivalent to x = sin y. The
domain is given by −1 6 x 6 1 and the range is given by
− π2 6 y 6 π2 . The graph is shown below

The arcsin graph can be obtained from the sin graph by (i)
interchanging the x and y label; (ii) rotating the graph 90o
clockwise; and (iii) mirroring about the horizontal axis.

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INVERSE COSINE FUNCTION

Use the same process as we did for the sine function: (i) restrict
the domain of y = cos x to 0 6 x 6 π to give the graph below:

(ii) swap x with y to give x = cos y; (iii) solve for y to give

y = cos−1 x

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The inverse function y = cos−1 x is equivalent to x = cos y. The
domain is given by −1 6 x 6 1 and the range is given by
0 6 y 6 π. The graph is shown below

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INVERSE TANGENT FUNCTION

Use the same process as we did for the sine function: (i) restrict
the domain of y = tan x to −π/2 < x < π/2 to give the graph
below:

(ii) swap x with y to give x = tan y; (iii) solve for y to give

y = tan−1 x

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The inverse function y = tan−1 x is equivalent to x = tan y. The
domain is given by −∞ < x < ∞ and the range is given by
−π/2 < y < π/2. The graph is shown below

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Example: Find
 
(i) sin−1 √12
 
(ii) cos−1 − √12 .
(iii) tan−1 0
Exercise:  
√
(i) sin−1 23 .
(ii) sin−1 − 12

(iii) cos−1 12 .


 
(iv) cos−1 √12 .
√
(v) tan−1 ( 3)

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DERIVATIVES OF INVERSE TRIG. FUNCTIONS

Now that we have learnt inverse trigonometric functions in the

previous section, we would like to perform calculus on
functions involving these inverses. In particular we would like
to be able to determine the derivatives involving inverse
trigonometric functions. The implicit differentiation technique
will be used here.

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INVERSE SINE FUNCTION

Given y = sin−1 x, then we have x = sin y where − π2 6 y 6 π2 .

This restriction on the y value is required to ensure the function
is one-to-one as described in the previous section.

Assume now that x is the independent variable and y is the

dependent variable in x = sin y. Using implicit differentiation
we have
d d
(x) = (sin y)
dx dx
dy
∴ 1 = cos y
dx
dy 1
∴ =
dx cos y
We have the derivative but the result is in terms of y. We would
like the result to be in terms of x.
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We will use the trigonometric identity
cos2 y + sin2 y = 1
to express the derivative in terms of x. Substituting x = sin y
into the identity above gives
cos2 y + x2 = 1 =⇒ cos2 y = 1 − x2
Solving for cos y gives
p
cos y = ± 1 − x2
Now there are two solutions but only one is acceptable. We
know that we have the following restriction on the y value:
− π2 6 y 6 π2 . For these values of y the cosine cannot be
negative, i.e. cos y > 0. Therefore we must reject the negative
sign solution so that
p
cos y = 1 − x2

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 dy
We therefore can express dx which is the derivative of the
inverse sine function as:
dy d 1
= (sin−1 x) = √
dx dx 1 − x2

INVERSE COSINE FUNCTION: Using similar steps to the

inverse sin, it can be shown that
d −1
(cos−1 x) = √
dx 1 − x2

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INVERSE TANGENT FUNCTION

For y = tan−1 x, we have x = tan y where the following

restriction − π2 < y < π2 apply to ensure a one-to-one function.

Using implicit differentiation w.r.t. independent variable x and

the identity 1 + tan2 y = sec2 y, it can be shown that

d 1
(tan−1 x) =
dx 1 + x2

Remark: The derivative of a normal trigonometric function is

another trigonometric function, e.g. the derivative of sin x is
cos x. However the derivative of inverse trigonometric
functions are neither normal nor inverse trigonometric
functions.

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 dy
Example: Find dx for

(i) y = sin−1 (3x2 ).

(ii) y = x2 tan−1 x

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 dy
Exercise: Find dx if
√
(i) y = tan−1 ( x)
(ii) y = sin−1 (2x)
(iii) y = tan−1 (x2 )
(iv) y = tan−1 (sin x)
(v) y = sin x tan−1 (x)

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LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS AND
DERIVATIVES

The logarithm is another important function is engineering and

science. It was invented by John Napier to aid in the process of
multiplication and division before the days of the modern
computer. Some of the concepts here should be more of a
revision to you.

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DEFINITION: We first start with a given non-negative number
a > 0 which is also known as the base. Suppose we have a
non-negative number x > 0 which we want to express as a
power of the base. If the required power is y (can be positive or
negative), we then have
x = ay
The logarithm of the number x w.r.t. the base a is then the
number y, i.e.
y = loga x
The domain of the log function is the positive x axis, i.e. x > 0.

One can think of the log function as extracting the power or

index, e.g. log2 8 = 3 because 23 = 8.

Q: What is (a) log2 (1/4); (b) log10 (1000)?

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LOGARITHMIC RULES (for any base)

log(ab) = log a + log b

log(a/b) = log a − log b
log(ab ) = b log a

Remarks:
I The first rule basically tells us that multiplication is
equivalent to addition with logarithm.
I The second rule basically tells us that division is
equivalent to subtraction with logarithm.
I The third rule basically tells us that raising to a power is
equivalent to multiplication with logarithm.
These rules will be exploited in logarithmic differentiation in
the next section.

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The graphs for logarithm with two different bases are shown
below.

1
For any base, the slope of y = log x is proportional to x.
When the base is e(' 2.718), the slope is exactly 1x .

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Definition: y = ln x means y = loge x, and is called the
natural logarithm.

Then the derivative is given by:

d 1
(ln x) = , for x > 0.
dx x

More generally, if y = ln u, using the chain rule

dy dy du 1 du
= · =
dx du dx u dx

d
i.e dx (ln u) = u1 du
dx which can be remembered as (i) take the
reciprocal of whatever is inside the logarithm and (ii) multiply
with the derivative of whatever is inside the logarithm.

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 dy
Example: Find dx for

(i) y = ln(x2 + sin x).

(ii) y = x2 ln x
1 4
h i
(x+1) /
(iii) y = ln (x 1 2
2 −7) /

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Exercise:
dy
Find for
dx
(i) y = ln(3x2 − cos x)
!
x1/2
(ii) y = ln
3
(iii) y = tan−1 (ln x)
(iv) y = sin x ln x
h 4
i
(v) y = ln (2x−1)2
sin x

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LOGARITHMIC DIFFERENTIATION

In Week 2, we discussed several rules that can be used to

differentiate almost any functions encountered in practice.
However these rules on some complicated functions would
require a lot of effort and therefore is prone to error. We study
here a technique is is based the properties of logarithm
discussed earlier that makes it easier to differentiate some
complicated functions.

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Differentiating complicated functions involving products,
quotients and powers can often be simplified by first taking
logarithms.

This is called logarithmic differentiation, and can be viewed as

a 3-step procedure.

STEP 1. Take ln of both sides of y = f (x), and simplify

expression using logarithm rules.

STEP 2. Differentiate both sides of equation w.r.t. the

independent variable x. Implicit differentiation is required on
the L.H.S.
dy
STEP 3. Solve the resulting equation for dx . Substitute
y = f (x) in places where y is found.

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 dy
Example: Use logarithmic differentiation to find dx for
(i)
2(x3 + 3)1/6
y=
(2x + 1)1/4
(ii) √
x3/4 x2 + 1
y=
(3x + 4)5

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Exercise:

Find y0 if
(i)
y = (2x + 1)5 (x4 − 3)6
(ii)
(3x − 2)1/3
y=
(4x2 − 1)1/8
(iii)
y = xx
(iv)
y = (sin x)ln x

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EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS AND
DERIVATIVES

The exponential function can be used to describe many

phenomena in real life such the charging rate of batteries,
population growth and the spread of diseases. The term
’exponential growth’, used in everyday language, has the
connotation of something increasing very quickly, has its roots
from this mathematical function. Some of the concepts here
should be more of a revision to you.

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We previously considered the logarithm function:

y = ln x = loge x

which has the domain given by x > 0 and range given by

−∞ < y < ∞. This function is a one-to-one function so that the
inverse function exists.

DEFINITION: The exponential function is the inverse of the

logarithm function given by:

y = ex

The graph of the function is given below

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The domain of the function is −∞ < x < ∞ and the range of
the function is y > 0. Note the interchange between domain
and range of the exponential function compared to the
logarithm function.
√
Q: Simplify (a) eln x ; (b) ln(e x ).

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E XPONENT RULES

ea eb = ea+b
ea/eb = ea−b
(ea )b = eab .
Remarks:
I The first rule basically tells us that multiplication is
equivalent to addition of the powers (indices).
I The second rule basically tells us that division is
equivalent to subtraction of the powers (indices).
I The third rule basically tells us that double powering is
equivalent to multiplication of the powers (indices).
These rules, though simple, are very important when doing
algebraic manipulations involving exponentials.
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DERIVATIVE
Since the exponential function y = ex is the inverse of the
logarithmic function, we can use the technique of implicit
differentiation on x = ln y to determine the derivative of the
exponential function.
d d
dx (x)= dx (ln y)
1 dy
∴ 1 = y dx
dy
∴ dx = y
d x
∴ dx (e ) = ex

More generally if u = u(x), by the Chain Rule,

d u du
(e ) = eu .
dx dx

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 dy
Example: Find dx for

(i) y = esin x

(ii) y = xe2x .
x 
−1
(iii) y = ln eex +1

Exercise: Find y0 for

(i) y = (3x − 1)e3x

(ii) y = ln(2ex − 3)

(iii) y = tan−1 (ex )

2
(iv) y = e−x sin−1 (2x)
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HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

In this week we have encountered the trigonometric functions

and the exponential function. The two types of function may
seem to be different to each other but in fact, they are
somewhat related. This brings us to hyperbolic functions,
which are obtained using exponential functions, and have
properties very similar to trigonometric functions.

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DEFINITION
The hyperbolic sine and cosine functions which are defined by
(equal) combinations of ex and e−x

sinh x = 12 (ex − e−x )

cosh x = 21 (ex + e−x )

The domain of these functions is all x, i.e. x ∈ R. The graphs of

these hyperbolic functions are shown below:

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Remarks:
I The ’h’ in the symbol for the functions is to denote that
they are hyperbolic.
I The sinh x and cosh x functions are, respectively, analogous,
to sin x and cos x from trigonometry.
I These functions occur naturally in equations from the
physical sciences, e.g. bridge beam bending, waves in
solids and temperature distributions.
I A chain hanging under its own weight has the shape of the
hyperbolic cosine.

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Basic properties of y = sinh x = 21 (ex − e−x )

(i) sinh 0 = 0

(ii) sinh(−x) = 21 (e−x − ex ) = − sinh x so that sinh x is an odd

function.

(iii) As x → ∞, sinh x → 12 ex , i.e. sinh x is similar to an

exponential function for large x.

Basic properties of y = cosh x = 21 (ex + e−x )

(i) cosh 0 = 1

(ii) cosh(−x) = 12 (e−x + ex ) = cosh x so that cosh x is an even

function.

(iii) As x → ∞, cosh x → 12 ex , i.e. cosh x is similar to an

exponential function for large x.
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Q: As x → −∞, what does (a) sinh x; (b) cosh x becomes similar to?

Other hyperbolic functions are defined by analogy with the

trig. functions. For example the hyperbolic tangent is defined
as
sinh x
tanh x =
cosh x

Q: How is the hyperbolic secant, i.e. sech x defined?

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IDENTITIES: The hyperbolic functions satisfy identities that
are similar, but not exactly the same, as identities found with
trigonometric functions. One of the basic identity from
trigonometric is cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1.

The corresponding basic hyperbolic identity is

cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1

Proof: L.S. = cosh2 x − sinh2 x

1 2  2
= 2 (e
x + e−x ) − 12 (ex − e−x )

1 2x
= 4 (e + 2 + e−2x ) − 14 (e2x − 2 + e−2x )

1 2x
= 4 (e + 2 + e−2x − e2x + 2 − e−2x )

1
= 4 (4) = 1 = R.S. as required.
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Letting x = cosh θ and y = sinh θ into the identity above
gives
x2 − y2 = 1
which is the equation of the hyperbola. That is how these
functions get their names.

In general, the identities for hyperbolic functions are similar to

those for trig. functions but with some changes in the sign:
where there is a product of sinh, the sign is reversed. For
example, from trig. we have

cos 2x = cos2 x − sin2 x

The equivalent identity with hyperbolic function is

cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x.

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However, to formally proof any identity involving hyperbolic
functions, we need to show that the L.S. of the equation is equal
to the R.S. of the equation.

Example: Use the definitions of sinh and cosh to prove

(i) ln(cosh x + sinh x) = x.

(ii) 2 cosh2 x − 1 = cosh 2x

Exercise: Use the definitions of sinh and cosh to prove

cosh(ln x) = 21 x + 1x


(i)

(ii) 1 + 2 sinh2 x = cosh 2x.

(iii) sinh(A + B) = sinh A cosh B + cosh A sinh B

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DERIVATIVES OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
AND ITS INVERSE

Just like with trigonometric functions, we would like to be able

to differentiate functions involving hyperbolic functions and
inverse hyperbolic functions. We will find that derivatives of
hyperbolic functions share some similarity with the derivatives
of trigonometric functions.

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Using the definition hyperbolic cosine

1
y = cosh x = (ex + e−x )
2
the derivative is given by:

dy 1
= (ex − e−x ) = sinh x
dx 2

d
(cosh x) = sinh x
dx
Exercise: Using similar steps to the hyperbolic cosine, show
that
d
(sinh x) = cosh x
dx

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Using the definition of the hyperbolic tangent

sinh x u(x)
y = tanh x = =
cosh x v(x)

and the quotient rule of derivatives, we have

dy cosh2 x−sinh2 x
dx = cosh2 x

1
= cosh2 x

= sech2 x

∴ d
dx (tanh x) = sech2 x.

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 dy
Example: Find dx if
√
(i) y = sinh( x)

(ii) y = cosh(x2 + 1)
sinh x
(iii) y = x

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Exercise: Find y0 if

(i) y = cosh3 x.
(ii) y = ln(sinh x).
(iii) y = ln(cosh x).
(iv) y = x sinh x.
(v) y = t2 tanh(1/t)

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INVERSE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS.

We shall not go into the details of the derivation but using a

similar procedure to inverse trigonometric function as
discussed earlier, the derivatives of inverse hyperbolic
functions are given by:

d 1
∴ (sinh−1 x) = √ for all x.
dx 2
x +1
d 1
(cosh−1 x) = √ ; x>1
dx x2 − 1
d 1
(tanh−1 x) = ; |x| < 1
dx 1 − x2
Note the domain restrictions for the cosh−1 x and tanh−1 x
functions.
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 dy
Example: Find dx if

(i) y = sinh−1 (x2 )

(ii) y = (1 − x) tanh−1 x

Exercise: Find y0 if
(i) y = (x2 + 1) sinh−1 x
(ii) y = sinh−1 x × (tan x)
(iii) y = (1 − θ2 ) cosh−1 θ.
 
(iv) y = tanh−1 1−x 1+x

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