SIT194 - Derivatives (Lecture Notes)
SIT194 - Derivatives (Lecture Notes)
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Definition: For y = f (x), x is known as the independent variable
and y is known as the dependent variable.
dy 0 0 d
, y , f (x) or [f (x)]
dx dx
and represents the instantaneous rate of change of y
(dependent variable) with respect to x (independent variable).
Remarks:
I The derivative itself can be considered another function
and we obtained a new function by differentiating the
original function
d
dx
f (x) −→ f 0 (x)
dy
I Geometrically, dx is equal to the slope of the curve y = f (x).
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Q: For a function f (x), we are given the following information -
f (0) = 1, f (2) = 2, f 0 (2) = 0. Find the point, i.e. (x, y) values, where
the slope of the function is zero.
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NOTES:
I Sometimes, e.g. in engineering, different symbols and
notations are used: v = f (t), i.e. v is the dependent variable
(for example the voltage or velocity) and t is the
independent variable (for example time).
I The ’dot’ notation is sometimes also used to represent the
derivative:
dv
v̇ =
dt
I Mathematically, the derivative using the concept of limits
but in practice the derivative the calculated using a set of
rules to be discussed next.
Q: If X is the symbol of the dependent variable and z is the symbol for
the independent variable, write down the symbol for the derivative.
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Derivative rule for basic functions:
d n
POWER RULE: dx (x ) = nxn−1 (n constant)
d d
[sin(kx)] = k cos(kx); [cos(kx)] = −k sin(kx)
dx dx
d k sec(x) = 1/cos(x)
[tan kx)] = = k sec2 (kx)
dx cos2 x
csec(x) = 1/sin(x)
d kx d 1
[e ] = kekx ; [ln x] =
dx dx x
Q: Find the derivative of the following functions: (a) x2 ; (b) x−2 ; (c)
sin(2x); (d) cos(x/3).
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Derivative rules for any functions f (x) and g(x):
d
MULTIPLICATION RULE (with constant k): dx (k f (x)) = kf 0
d
SUM RULE: dx [f (x) + g(x)] = f 0 + g0
d
PRODUCT RULE: dx [f (x)g(x)] = fg0 + gf 0
Best remembered as: (i) take one function and multiply by the
derivative of the other ; (ii) do the same thing but with the roles
of the functions reversed and (iii) add the two products.
gf 0 −fg0
h i
d f (x)
QUOTIENT RULE: dx g(x) = g2
Looks similar to the product rule but with important
differences : (i) for the first product take the denominator and
multiply the derivative of numerator. (ii) do the same thing but
with the roles of the functions reversed and (iii) subtract the
two products. Do not forget to divide by the denominator
squared. 6 / 40
dy
Example: Find dx for:
√ 2
(i) y = 3x2 + 5 x + x3
(ii) y = (3x2 + x) sin x
x+2
(iii) y = 2x2 −1
dy
Exercise: Find dx for:
2
(i) y = 4 sin(2x) − cos(3x) + e3x
(ii) y = (x2 − 2x)e4x
x2
(iii) y = sin x
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CHAIN RULE: If y = f (u) and u = g(x), then we have a
composite function y = f (g(x)). The derivative is given by:
dy dy du
= · .
dx du dx
which can be remembered as ’outer function derivative’ times
’inner function derivative’. The key to successfully using the
chain rule is to identify the correct inner and outer functions.
√
Q: For the following composite function y = cos( x), determine the
inner function u = g(x) and outer function y = f (u)?
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dy
Example: Find dx for:
(i) y = (x3 + 1)4
(ii) y = cos(x2 + 3x)
(iii) y = sin2 x
dy
Exercise: Find dx for:
√
(i) y = x2 + 1
√
(ii) y = e x
(iii) y = sin(x2 )
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Sometimes, several rules need to be applied in succession to
differentiate more complicated functions.
dy
Example: Find dx for:
x sin x
y=
x+1
dy
Exercise: Find dx for:
y = (1 + x2 sin x)4
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IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION
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So far, in the examples we have considered, the dependent
variable can be expressed explicitly in the terms of the
independent variable, e.g.
y = x2 cos x
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NOTES:
1. Any term which only has the dependent variable y, (i.e. a
function of y, say h(y)), can be differentiated w.r.t. x using
the Chain rule, i.e.
dh dh dy
= ·
dx dy dx
dh dy
e.g. if h(y) = y3 , dx = 3y2 dx . We are assuming here that
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Handy Tips:
I Look / Analyze the equation to determine the variables
involved, e.g. x and y or t and y.
I Ask yourself which is to be considered the independent
variable, e.g. x or t.
I All other variables are, e.g. y, are considered to be
dependent on (or a function of) the independent variable.
I Then differentiate both sides of the equation. One or more
dy
of the terms will have the desired derivative, e.g. dx .
dy
I Use algebraic manipulation to get dx in terms of
everything else.
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Q: If t is considered as the independent variable and z considered as
the dependent variable, determine
d
(sin z)
dt
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dy
Example: Find dx if
(i) x2 + 2xy − y2 +4=0
(ii) x2 y3 − sin y = 5
dy
Exercise: Find dx if
(i) x2 y − ln y = 0
(ii) x2 cos y + y2 = π 2 − 1
(iii) sin(xy) = y2
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Implicit differentiation can be used to determine the slope of a
curve at certain points.
Exercise:
(i) Find the slope of the curve x2 y + y2 = 6 at the point (1, 2).
(ii) Consider a circle which has a center at the origin with
radius 5. Find the slope of the circle at the points where
x = 3.
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LIMIT FOR FINITE x
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Basic ideas:
I Sometimes a function f (x) is not defined for certain
2 −1
value(s) of x, e.g. y = f (x) = xx−1 is not defined at x = 1
I We would still like to get a sense of how a function
behaves near those undefined value(s) of x.
x
Q: For what values of x is the following function y = f (x) = x2 −4
not
defined.
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Definition: A function y = f (x) may approach a value L as
x approaches a, even if y is not defined at x = a.
This is written as
lim f (x) = L
x→a
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x2 −1
Illustration with the function y = f (x) = x−1 .
I Consider two x values that are near x = 1.
I When x = 1.01, y = 2.01.
I When x = 0.99, y = 1.99.
I As x gets close to the value 1, y get close to the value 2.
I Formally we write
x2 − 1
lim =2
x→1 x − 1
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The graph is a straight line with a hole at the point x = 1, y = 2.
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In general, such limits can be evaluated by
1. Factorizing the top and bottom lines (if possible)
2. Cancelling common factors to give a simplified expression.
3. Substituing the x value into the simplified expression.
x2 − 1 (x + 1)(x − 1)
lim = lim = lim (x + 1) = 2
x→1 x − 1 x→1 x−1 x→1
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x2 −5x+6
Example: For y = f (x) = x2 −3x+2
, find
(i) the domain of f
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For functions y = f (x) defined by a single formula
1. If f (a) exists, then
lim f (x) = f (a) (as in (ii) and (v) in Example above).
x→a
0
3. If f (a) has the form 0, then lim f (x) may be evaluated
x→a
by (i) factorisation and (ii) cancelling out common factors.
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Example: Evaluate
x2 −6x+8
(i) lim 2
x→4 x −3x−4
x2 −9
(ii) lim
x→3 x−3
Exercise: Evaluate
x2 −6x+5
(i) lim x−5
x→5
t2 −9
(ii) lim 2t2 +7t+3
t→−3
(y−3)(y2 +3y−4)
(iii) lim 2
y→−4 (y +2y−8)(y+6)
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LIMITS FOR INFINITE x
Basic ideas:
I Often, when x grows large, y = f (x) ‘behaves like’ or ‘tends
to’ a fixed value y = L.
I In other words f (x) ∼ L as x → ∞ (where ∼ means
‘behaves like’).
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Lets consider simple examples to illustrate the basic ideas:
2
1. If y = f (x) = x x+1
2 , what happens when x becomes very
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More formally, we write the following
lim f (x) = L
x→∞
3x2 +cos x
Q: If y = g(x) = x2
, what is lim g(x)?
x→∞
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Two useful results when evaluating limits at infinity are:
1
1. lim n = 0, for n > 0
x→∞ x
Q: Evaluate the following: (a) lim x−1/2 ; (b) lim x−2 ; (c) lim x0.01 .
x→∞ x→∞ x→∞
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To evaluate limits of the form
P(x)
lim
x→∞ Q(x)
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Example: Evaluate
4x2 +x
(i) lim 2
x→∞ x +1
√
(ii) lim √x+ 2 x
x→∞ 4x +1
√
(iii) lim √ x+3
4x
x→∞ 4x3 +1
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L’H ÔPITAL’S RULE
The techniques we discussed in the last two sections, for
evaluating limits involving quotient of functions, are not very
versatile. The techniques only work for functions involving
powers on x, e.g. they cannot be used on functions involving
cos x. We now present a versatile technique that can be used for
almost any functions.
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I If at x = a, we have f (a) = g(a) = 0, we say that we have
0
indeterminate quotients of the form .
0
I If as x → a, we have f (x) → ∞ and g(x) → ∞, we say that
∞
we have indeterminate quotients of the form .
∞
0
Q: Which of the following has indeterminate of the form and which
0
∞ 2 2
has indeterminate of the form : (a) lim √ x4 ; (b) lim √ x4 ; (c)
∞ x→0 x +3 x→∞ x +3
2
√x
lim sin
x→0 x
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In practice
0
I The indeterminate of the form occurs when one is trying
0
to divide two very small numbers.
∞
I The indeterminate of the form occurs when one is
∞
trying to divide two very large numbers.
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When such indeterminate quotients occur, the L’HÔPITAL’S
RULE rule may be used.
(a) If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0, then
x→a x→a
f (x) f 0 (x)
lim = lim 0 .
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)
f (x) f 0 (x)
lim = lim 0 .
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)
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NOTE: L’Hôpital’s Rule CANNOT be used for quotients
which are not indeterminate. Example:
x2 − 1 9−1 8
lim = = =4
x→3 x − 1 3−1 2
When x = 3, both the numerator and denominator are NOT
zero. Therefore, to determine the limit, one just substitute x = 0.
x2 − 1 2x
lim = lim =6
x→3 x − 1 x→3 1
which is incorrect.
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Example: Find the following limits
sin x
(i) lim
x→0 x
x
(ii) lim x
x→∞ e
ln x
(iii) lim
x→∞ x
π−x
(iv) lim
x→π sin x
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Exercise: Find the following limits
cos x − 1
(i) lim
x→0 3x2
3x4 − 4x2 + 1
(ii) lim
x→1 x5 − 1
x3/2 − 8
(iii) lim 3/2
x→4 x − x − 4
x cos x
(iv) lim
x→0 2 sin x
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More Exercises:
1 − x − cos x
(i) lim
x→0 x + sin x
4x3/2 − 3x − 1
(ii) lim
x→1 x2 − 1
1 − cos x
(iii) lim
x→0 x2 − x
x5 − 2x3 + 1
(iv) lim
x→1 x4 − 1
cos x
(v) limπ π
x→ 2 2 −x
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