THE DERIVATIVE AND DIFFERENTIATION

The derivative is one of the most important concepts in

calculus and allows us to analyze the behaviour of function
commonly encountered in applications. Calculating the
derivative is usually achieved by application fundamental
rules in differentiation.

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Definition: For y = f (x), x is known as the independent variable
and y is known as the dependent variable.

The derivative of y with respect to x is denoted by

dy 0 0 d
, y , f (x) or [f (x)]
dx dx
and represents the instantaneous rate of change of y
(dependent variable) with respect to x (independent variable).
Remarks:
I The derivative itself can be considered another function
and we obtained a new function by differentiating the
original function
d
dx
f (x) −→ f 0 (x)
dy
I Geometrically, dx is equal to the slope of the curve y = f (x).

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Q: For a function f (x), we are given the following information -
f (0) = 1, f (2) = 2, f 0 (2) = 0. Find the point, i.e. (x, y) values, where
the slope of the function is zero.

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NOTES:
I Sometimes, e.g. in engineering, different symbols and
notations are used: v = f (t), i.e. v is the dependent variable
(for example the voltage or velocity) and t is the
independent variable (for example time).
I The ’dot’ notation is sometimes also used to represent the
derivative:
dv
v̇ =
dt
I Mathematically, the derivative using the concept of limits
but in practice the derivative the calculated using a set of
rules to be discussed next.
Q: If X is the symbol of the dependent variable and z is the symbol for
the independent variable, write down the symbol for the derivative.

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Derivative rule for basic functions:
d n
POWER RULE: dx (x ) = nxn−1 (n constant)

TRIG, LOG and EXP. FUNCTIONS: For k constant

d d
[sin(kx)] = k cos(kx); [cos(kx)] = −k sin(kx)
dx dx
d k sec(x) = 1/cos(x)
[tan kx)] = = k sec2 (kx)
dx cos2 x
csec(x) = 1/sin(x)
d kx d 1
[e ] = kekx ; [ln x] =
dx dx x

Q: Find the derivative of the following functions: (a) x2 ; (b) x−2 ; (c)
sin(2x); (d) cos(x/3).

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Derivative rules for any functions f (x) and g(x):

d
MULTIPLICATION RULE (with constant k): dx (k f (x)) = kf 0
d
SUM RULE: dx [f (x) + g(x)] = f 0 + g0

d
PRODUCT RULE: dx [f (x)g(x)] = fg0 + gf 0
Best remembered as: (i) take one function and multiply by the
derivative of the other ; (ii) do the same thing but with the roles
of the functions reversed and (iii) add the two products.

gf 0 −fg0
h i
d f (x)
QUOTIENT RULE: dx g(x) = g2
Looks similar to the product rule but with important
differences : (i) for the first product take the denominator and
multiply the derivative of numerator. (ii) do the same thing but
with the roles of the functions reversed and (iii) subtract the
two products. Do not forget to divide by the denominator
squared. 6 / 40
 dy
Example: Find dx for:
√ 2
(i) y = 3x2 + 5 x + x3
(ii) y = (3x2 + x) sin x
x+2
(iii) y = 2x2 −1

dy
Exercise: Find dx for:
2
(i) y = 4 sin(2x) − cos(3x) + e3x
(ii) y = (x2 − 2x)e4x
x2
(iii) y = sin x

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CHAIN RULE: If y = f (u) and u = g(x), then we have a
composite function y = f (g(x)). The derivative is given by:

dy dy du
= · .
dx du dx
which can be remembered as ’outer function derivative’ times
’inner function derivative’. The key to successfully using the
chain rule is to identify the correct inner and outer functions.
√
Q: For the following composite function y = cos( x), determine the
inner function u = g(x) and outer function y = f (u)?

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 dy
Example: Find dx for:
(i) y = (x3 + 1)4
(ii) y = cos(x2 + 3x)
(iii) y = sin2 x

dy
Exercise: Find dx for:
√
(i) y = x2 + 1
√
(ii) y = e x

(iii) y = sin(x2 )

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Sometimes, several rules need to be applied in succession to
differentiate more complicated functions.
dy
Example: Find dx for:
x sin x
y=
x+1

dy
Exercise: Find dx for:

y = (1 + x2 sin x)4

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IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

In some situation we cannot obtain the derivative directly as

we do not have en explicit mathematical expression of the
function. Fortunately, there is an elegant indirect technique, to
obtain the derivative.

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So far, in the examples we have considered, the dependent
variable can be expressed explicitly in the terms of the
independent variable, e.g.

y = x2 cos x

However there are situations when the dependent variable

cannot be explicitly expressed in terms of the independent
variable.
x2 + 2xy − y2 + 4 = 0
We say that y is defined implicitly in terms of x.

Such implicit equations can be differentiated with respect to x

dy
(w.r.t. x) in order to find dx .

The Product and Chain rules must be used where appropriate.

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NOTES:
1. Any term which only has the dependent variable y, (i.e. a
function of y, say h(y)), can be differentiated w.r.t. x using
the Chain rule, i.e.
dh dh dy
= ·
dx dy dx

dh dy
e.g. if h(y) = y3 , dx = 3y2 dx . We are assuming here that

we are dealing with the composite function h(y(x)) of the

independent variable x.
dy
2. After all terms have been differentiated w.r.t. x, dx will
appear in the resulting equation. This equation can then be
dy
re-arranged to give dx in terms of x and y.

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Handy Tips:
I Look / Analyze the equation to determine the variables
involved, e.g. x and y or t and y.
I Ask yourself which is to be considered the independent
variable, e.g. x or t.
I All other variables are, e.g. y, are considered to be
dependent on (or a function of) the independent variable.
I Then differentiate both sides of the equation. One or more
dy
of the terms will have the desired derivative, e.g. dx .
dy
I Use algebraic manipulation to get dx in terms of
everything else.

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Q: If t is considered as the independent variable and z considered as
the dependent variable, determine

d
(sin z)
dt

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 dy
Example: Find dx if
(i) x2 + 2xy − y2 +4=0
(ii) x2 y3 − sin y = 5
dy
Exercise: Find dx if
(i) x2 y − ln y = 0
(ii) x2 cos y + y2 = π 2 − 1
(iii) sin(xy) = y2

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Implicit differentiation can be used to determine the slope of a
curve at certain points.

Example: Find the slope of the curve x2 − y2 = 9 at the point

(5, 4).

Exercise:
(i) Find the slope of the curve x2 y + y2 = 6 at the point (1, 2).
(ii) Consider a circle which has a center at the origin with
radius 5. Find the slope of the circle at the points where
x = 3.

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LIMIT FOR FINITE x

Some functions that are encountered in calculus may behave

strangely at certain points. The concept of the limit is very
important for understanding the behaviour of the function at
these points.

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Basic ideas:
I Sometimes a function f (x) is not defined for certain
2 −1
value(s) of x, e.g. y = f (x) = xx−1 is not defined at x = 1
I We would still like to get a sense of how a function
behaves near those undefined value(s) of x.
x
Q: For what values of x is the following function y = f (x) = x2 −4
not
defined.

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Definition: A function y = f (x) may approach a value L as
x approaches a, even if y is not defined at x = a.

This is written as
lim f (x) = L
x→a

The value L is known as the limit of the function.

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 x2 −1
Illustration with the function y = f (x) = x−1 .
I Consider two x values that are near x = 1.
I When x = 1.01, y = 2.01.
I When x = 0.99, y = 1.99.
I As x gets close to the value 1, y get close to the value 2.
I Formally we write

x2 − 1
lim =2
x→1 x − 1

The function is formally given by

(
x2 − 1 x + 1 if x 6= 1
y= =
x−1 undefined if x = 1

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The graph is a straight line with a hole at the point x = 1, y = 2.

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In general, such limits can be evaluated by
1. Factorizing the top and bottom lines (if possible)
2. Cancelling common factors to give a simplified expression.
3. Substituing the x value into the simplified expression.

Using the example above, we have

x2 − 1 (x + 1)(x − 1)
lim = lim = lim (x + 1) = 2
x→1 x − 1 x→1 x−1 x→1

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 x2 −5x+6
Example: For y = f (x) = x2 −3x+2
, find
(i) the domain of f

(ii) lim f (x)

x→0

(iii) lim f (x)

x→1

(iv) lim f (x)

x→2

(v) lim f (x)

x→3

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For functions y = f (x) defined by a single formula
1. If f (a) exists, then
lim f (x) = f (a) (as in (ii) and (v) in Example above).
x→a

2. If f (a) has the form 0k (where k 6= 0) then

lim f (x) is undefined (as in (iii) in Example above).
x→a

0
3. If f (a) has the form 0, then lim f (x) may be evaluated
x→a
by (i) factorisation and (ii) cancelling out common factors.

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Example: Evaluate
x2 −6x+8
(i) lim 2
x→4 x −3x−4

x2 −9
(ii) lim
x→3 x−3

Exercise: Evaluate
x2 −6x+5
(i) lim x−5
x→5
t2 −9
(ii) lim 2t2 +7t+3
t→−3
(y−3)(y2 +3y−4)
(iii) lim 2
y→−4 (y +2y−8)(y+6)

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LIMITS FOR INFINITE x

In the previous section we examined the limit of a function for

finite values of x. In this section we are interested in the limit
when x becomes very large.

Basic ideas:
I Often, when x grows large, y = f (x) ‘behaves like’ or ‘tends
to’ a fixed value y = L.
I In other words f (x) ∼ L as x → ∞ (where ∼ means
‘behaves like’).

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Lets consider simple examples to illustrate the basic ideas:
2
1. If y = f (x) = x x+1
2 , what happens when x becomes very

large? The numerator x2 + 1 is then very similar to x2 as

the ’+1’ term, which is much smaller than x2 , can be
2
ignored. Then we say y = f (x) ∼ xx2 = 1 as x → ∞.
2 x
2. If y = g(x) = 3x +cos
x2
, what happens when x becomes very
large? The numerator 3x2 + cos x is then very similar to 3x2
as the ’cos x’ term, which is much smaller than 3x2 , can be
2
ignored. Then we say y = g(x) ∼ 3x x2
= 3 as x → ∞.

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More formally, we write the following

lim f (x) = L
x→∞

3x2 +cos x
Q: If y = g(x) = x2
, what is lim g(x)?
x→∞

Pictorially, as x gets very large, y gets closer to the line

y = L. The graphs of the two examples discussed above is
shown below.

The ‘behaviour line’ is also technically known as the asymptote.

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Two useful results when evaluating limits at infinity are:
1
1. lim n = 0, for n > 0
x→∞ x

2. lim xn is undefined (infinitely large), for n > 0.

x→∞

Q: Evaluate the following: (a) lim x−1/2 ; (b) lim x−2 ; (c) lim x0.01 .
x→∞ x→∞ x→∞

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To evaluate limits of the form
P(x)
lim
x→∞ Q(x)

where P(x) and Q(x) contain constant powers of x, the general

steps are:
1. Take out the highest power of x (as a factor) in the
numerator and denominator.
2. Simplify the result by dividing the highest power in the
numerator with the highest power in the numerator
3. Use results 1 and 2 discussed above.

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Example: Evaluate
4x2 +x
(i) lim 2
x→∞ x +1
√
(ii) lim √x+ 2 x
x→∞ 4x +1
√
(iii) lim √ x+3
4x
x→∞ 4x3 +1

Exercise: Evaluate the following limits

2x2
(i) lim x+6
x→∞
(ii) lim x−5
2
x→∞ 2x +1
2 −x
(iii) lim 3x3
x→∞ 4x −3x+1
(2x−3)2
(iv) lim 2
x→∞ x +3
√
2x x2 +1
(v) lim 2
x→∞ 6x −5

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L’H ÔPITAL’S RULE
The techniques we discussed in the last two sections, for
evaluating limits involving quotient of functions, are not very
versatile. The techniques only work for functions involving
powers on x, e.g. they cannot be used on functions involving
cos x. We now present a versatile technique that can be used for
almost any functions.

Basic ideas: we covered limits of functions in the previous two

section. Often we have to calculate the limits involving the
ratio of two functions, i.e.
f (x)
lim
x→a g(x)

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 I If at x = a, we have f (a) = g(a) = 0, we say that we have
0
indeterminate quotients of the form .
0
I If as x → a, we have f (x) → ∞ and g(x) → ∞, we say that
∞
we have indeterminate quotients of the form .
∞
0
Q: Which of the following has indeterminate of the form and which
0
∞ 2 2
has indeterminate of the form : (a) lim √ x4 ; (b) lim √ x4 ; (c)
∞ x→0 x +3 x→∞ x +3
2
√x
lim sin
x→0 x

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In practice
0
I The indeterminate of the form occurs when one is trying
0
to divide two very small numbers.
∞
I The indeterminate of the form occurs when one is
∞
trying to divide two very large numbers.

Q: What is the final result of the division?

A: Practically it all depends on how big (or small) the

numerator is compared to the denominator.

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When such indeterminate quotients occur, the L’HÔPITAL’S
RULE rule may be used.
(a) If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0, then
x→a x→a

f (x) f 0 (x)
lim = lim 0 .
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)

(b) If lim f (x) = ±∞ and lim g(x) = ±∞, then

x→a x→a

f (x) f 0 (x)
lim = lim 0 .
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)

The basic idea behind the rule is to differentiate top

(numerator) and bottom (denominator) repeatedly until the
quotient can be calculated directly.

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NOTE: L’Hôpital’s Rule CANNOT be used for quotients
which are not indeterminate. Example:

x2 − 1 9−1 8
lim = = =4
x→3 x − 1 3−1 2
When x = 3, both the numerator and denominator are NOT
zero. Therefore, to determine the limit, one just substitute x = 0.

If we were to use L’Hôpital’s, we get

x2 − 1 2x
lim = lim =6
x→3 x − 1 x→3 1

which is incorrect.

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Example: Find the following limits

sin x
(i) lim
x→0 x
x
(ii) lim x
x→∞ e
ln x
(iii) lim
x→∞ x
π−x
(iv) lim
x→π sin x

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Exercise: Find the following limits
cos x − 1
(i) lim
x→0 3x2
3x4 − 4x2 + 1
(ii) lim
x→1 x5 − 1
x3/2 − 8
(iii) lim 3/2
x→4 x − x − 4
x cos x
(iv) lim
x→0 2 sin x

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More Exercises:
1 − x − cos x
(i) lim
x→0 x + sin x

4x3/2 − 3x − 1
(ii) lim
x→1 x2 − 1
1 − cos x
(iii) lim
x→0 x2 − x

x5 − 2x3 + 1
(iv) lim
x→1 x4 − 1
cos x
(v) limπ π
x→ 2 2 −x

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