MEASUREMENT AND MEASURING INSTRUMENT

SHADAB ALI (DEE-2ND YEAR)

UNIT-2

Date:-12/10/22

Constructional feature and working of Dynamometer type watt meter

Construction of Dynamometer Type Wattmeter

A dynamometer type wattmeter primarily consists of two coils called fixed coil and moving
coil. The fixed coil is splitted into two equal parts, which are placed parallel to each other.
The two fixed coils are air-cored to avoid hysteresis effects when used on AC.

The fixed coil is connected in series with the load and carries the circuit current. It is,
therefore, called the current coil. Since current coils carry full load current, so these are made
up of thick wire. And current flow through them is high, so few turns are sufficient to
produce the desired magnetic field.

Generally, a high resistance is connected in series with the moving coil to limit the current
through it. By limiting the current, the moving coil is made lightweight, which in turn
increases the sensitivity of the instrument.

The springs provide the controlling torque. They also serve the additional purpose of leading
the current into and out of the moving coil. Air friction damping is employed in such
instruments.

Its current coil is connected in series with the load, carries the load current, and the potential
coil, connected in parallel with the load, carries the current proportional to the voltage across
the load.

Dynamometer Type Wattmeter Working

The fixed coil produces a field Fm, and the moving coil creates a field Fr. The field Fr tries to
come in line with the main field Fm, which provides a deflecting torque on the moving coil.
Thus, the pointer attached to the spindle of the moving coil deflects. This deflection is
controlled by the controlling torque produced by the springs.

Q.induction type single phase energy meter

Single phase induction type energy meter is also popularly known as watt-hour meter. This
name is given to it. This article is only focused about its constructional features and its
working. Induction type energy meter essentially consists of following components:
1. Driving system
2. Moving system
3. Braking system and
4. Registering system

Driving system

It consists of two electromagnets, called “shunt” magnet and “series” magnet, of

laminated construction. A coil having large number of turns of fine wire is wound on the
middle limb of the shunt magnet.
This coil is known as “pressure or voltage” coil and is connected across the supply mains.
This voltage coil has many turns and is arranged to be as highly inductive as possible. In
other words, the voltage coil produces a high ratio of inductance to resistance.
This causes the current and therefore the flux, to lag the supply voltage by nearly 90 degree.

Single-phase induction kilowatt hour

meter - Construction
An adjustable copper shading rings are provided on the central limb of the shunt magnet to
make the phase angle displacement between magnetic field set up by shunt magnet and
supply voltage is approximately 90 degree.

The copper shading bands are also called the power factor compensator or compensating
loop. The series electromagnet is energized by a coil, known as “current” coil which is
connected in series with the load so that it carry the load current. The flux produced by this
magnet is proportional to, and in phase with the load current.

Moving system

The moving system essentially consists of a light rotating aluminium disk mounted on a
vertical spindle or shaft. The shaft that supports the aluminium disk is connected by a gear
arrangement to the clock mechanism on the front of the meter to provide information that
consumed energy by the load.

The time varying (sinusoidal) fluxes produced by shunt and series magnet induce eddy
currents in the aluminium disc.

The interaction between these two magnetic fields and eddy currents set up a driving torque
in the disc.

The number of rotations of the disk is therefore proportional to the energy consumed by the
load in a certain time interval and is commonly measured in kilowatt-hours (Kwh).

Braking system

Damping of the disk is provided by a small permanent magnet, located diametrically

opposite to the a.c magnets. The disk passes between the magnet gaps. The movement of
rotating disc through the magnetic field crossing the air gap sets up eddy currents in the
disc that reacts with the magnetic field and exerts a braking torque.
By changing the position of the brake magnet or diverting some of the flux there form, the
speed of the rotating disc can be controlled.

Registering or Counting system

Single-phase induction kilowatt hour meter scheme
The registering or counting system essentially consists of gear train, driven either by worm orpinion

gear on the disc shaft, which turns pointers that indicate on dials the number of times the disc has
turned.

The energy meter thus determines and adds together or integrates all the instantaneous
power values so that total energy used over a period is thus known.
Therefore, this type of meter is also called an “integrating” meter.

Working of Single phase induction type Energy Meter

The basic working of Single phase induction type Energy Meter is only focused on two
mechanisms:

1. Mechanism of rotation of an aluminum disc which is made to rotate at a speed

proportional to the power.
2. Mechanism of counting and displaying the amount of energy transferred.
Lets have a look over these mechanism in few words:

Mechanism of rotation of an aluminum disc

Which is made to rotate at a speed proportional to the power.

The metallic disc is acted upon by two coils. One coil is connected 0r arranged in such a
way that it produces a magnetic flux in proportion to the voltage and the other produces a
magnetic flux in proportion to the current. The field of the voltage coil is delayed by 90
degrees using a lag coil.

This produces eddy currents in the disc and the effect is such that a force is exerted on the
disc in proportion to the product of the instantaneous current and voltage.

A permanent magnet exerts an opposing force proportional to the speed of rotation of the
disc – this acts as a brake which causes the disc to stop spinning when power stops being
drawn rather than allowing it to spin faster and faster. This causes the disc to rotate at a
speed proportional to the power being used.

Mechanism of displaying the amount of energy transferred

Based on number of rotation of aluminum disc.

The aluminum disc is supported by a spindle which has a worm gear which drives the
register. The register is a series of dials which record the amount of energy used.

The dials may be of the cyclometer type, an odometer-like display that is easy to read
where for each dial a single digit is shown through a window in the face of the meter, or of
the pointer type where a pointer indicates each digit.

It should be noted that with the dial pointer type, adjacent pointers generally rotate in
opposite directions due to the gearing mechanism.
Three Phase Energy Meter - Construction & Working

Construction of Three Phase Energy Meter :The construction of a three-phase induction

type energy meter appears as an assembly of two single-phase induction type energy meters
in one case, having a common spindle and registering mechanism. The schematic diagram of

the meter is shown in the below figure.

The essential parts of the 3-phase energy meter are,

Driving system

Moving system

Braking system

Registering system.

Driving System :

The combination of a shunt and series magnet is called an element. So, it consists of two

elements. The connections for the winding of these electromagnets are shown in the figure.

The shunt magnet windings are provided such that, during no-load conditions, the torque

developed by both the shunt magnets is opposite in nature.

 In order to make the resultant driving torque equal to zero, a magnetic shunt is provided

in the meter. Its position is adjusted until the discs stop rotating at no-load. The necessary

driving torque is obtained due to the interaction between the shunt and series magnetic fields

on the disc in each element.

Moving System :

The moving system consists of two aluminum discs (one for each element) which are

mounted over a single spindle. The torque developed by each disc will be added up and as a

result, the total torque will be proportional to the 3-phase power consumed by the load.

Braking System :

This system provides the necessary braking action on the discs. An individual permanent

magnet is provided for each disc. There is a provision for adjusting the position of each brake

magnet in order to vary the braking torque.

Registering System :

This system is attached to the moving system through the pinion and a gear train. It

continuously counts or registers the number of revolutions made by the discs. It means it

integrates the power consumed by the three-phase load over a considered period of time

which is nothing but energy.

Working of Three Phase Energy Meter :

The principle of working of a 3-phase energy meter is similar to the single-phase energy

meter. When the load is connected to the meter both the pressure coil and the current coil of

the two elements mounted on the shunt and series magnet produces magnetic flux. This flux

when links with the discs cause an eddy current to flow in it.

Interaction of eddy currents with the flux imposed by the two coils causes the production
of torque on discs. Since two discs are attached to one spindle, the torque exerted on the two

discs added mechanically. Hence, rotation of the shaft gives the 3-phase energy consumed.
Measurement of power by 1, 2 and 3 wattmeter method.

Measurement of Three Phase Power | Wattmeter Methods

This article explains the measurement of three-phase power in star connected or delta
connecter load using the wattmeter methods.
The power in a three phase load can be measured by following methods:
1. Three wattmeter method
2. Two wattmeter method
3. One wattmeter method
The name of these methods indicates the number of wattmeters used in the measurement of
the three-phase power.
Table of Contents
What is a Wattmeter?
A wattmeter is an equipment used to measure power in a circuit. It consists of two types of
coils. They are:
• A Current Coil that possesses a low resistance.
• A Pressure or Potential Coil that possesses a high resistance.
The current coil is connected in series with the line carrying current. The pressure coil is
connected across the two points whose potential difference is to be measured. Refer the
figure for the connections of a wattmeter.
Connection of a Wattmeter

A wattmeter shows a reading which proportional to the product of three values. They are
• Current (I) through its current coil.
• Potential difference (V) across its pressure coil.
• Cosine of the angle between voltage and current (Cosϕ).
P = VICos(ϕ)
A comparison between the methods of measuring power in a three-phase circuit is shown in
the table below.
Three Wattmeter Used for measurement of 3 phase, 4 wire circuits. Both balanced
Method and unbalanced loads.

One Wattmeter
Used in Balanced 3 phase, 3 wire load circuit.
Method

Two Wattmeter
Used in both balanced and unbalanced 3 phase, 3 wire circuits
Method

Three Wattmeter Method

Now we will explain the measurement three-phase power measurement using three wattmeter
method.
Three wattmeter method is used to measure power in 3 phase, 4-wire circuits. However, this
method can also be used in 3 phase, 3 wire delta connected load, where power consumed by
each load is required to be determined separately.
The figure below shows the three wattmeter connection of 3 phase, 4 wire star connected
load.
Three Wattmeter Method

As indicated in the figure, the three wattmeters are connected in each of the three phases to
measure three-phase power usage of the load whether star or delta connected.
The current coil of each wattmeter carries the current of one phase only and the pressure coil
measures the phase voltage of the phase. Hence, each wattmeter measures the power in a
single phase. The total power in the load is given by the algebraic sum of the readings of the
three wattmeters.
P = W1 + W2 + W3
where , W1 = V1*I1 , W2 = V2*I2, W3 = V3*I3
Disadvantages of Three Wattmeter Method
While using three wattmeter method following difficulty is met with:
• In the case of 3 phase, 3 wire star connected load, it is difficult to get a neutral
point which is required for connection. In special cases, when this method is
necessary to use, an ‘artificial star’ can be formed.
• In case of delta connected circuits, the difficulty in using this method is due to
fact that the phase coils are required to be broken for inserting current coils of
wattmeters.
To measure power it is not necessary to use three wattmeter, even two wattmeters can be
used for the purpose.
Except for 3 phase, 4 wire unbalanced load, three-phase power are measured using only Two
Wattmeter Method.
One Wattmeter Method
The next method we are going to discuss is the one wattmeter method.
In this method of three-phase power measurment, the current coil is connected in any one line
and the pressure coil is connected alternatively between this and the other two lines. The
connection diagram is shown in the figure below.One Wattmeter Method
So we will get two readings for a balanced load. The two readings so obtained, correspond to
those obtained by the normal two wattmeter method.
A balanced load is a load that draws the same current from each phase of the three-phase
system, while an unbalanced load has at least one of those currents different from the rest.
In balanced 3-wire, 3-phase load circuit the power in each phase is equal. Therefore, the total
power of the circuit can be determined by multiplying the power measured in any one phase
by three.
Total power in balanced load = 3 x Power per Phase
= 3 x Wattmeter reading
Disadvantages of One Wattmeter Method
This method is not of as much universal application as the two wattmeter method because it
is restricted to fairly balance loads only. Even a slight degree of unbalance in the loading
produce a large error in the measurement.
However, it may be conveniently applied, for instance, when it is desired to find the power
input to a factory motor in order to check the load up on the motor.
Two Wattmeter Method
As the name indicates, in this method two wattmeters are used to measure three-phase power.
This is the most popular method among the three.
This method is generally used for the measurement of power in 3 phase, 3-wire load circuits.
It can be used to measure power in star/delta connected load in balanced or unbalanced
condition.
Remember a balanced load is a load that draws the same current from each phase of the
three-phase system, while an unbalanced load has at least one of those currents different from
the rest.
In two wattmeter method, the current coils of the two wattmeters are inserted in any two lines
and pressure coil of each wattmeter is joined to the third line. Refer the figure below for
better understanding.
Two Wattmeter Method

The figure above shows the two wattmeter connection of star connected load. Similarly, delta
connected loads are also used. Two wattmeter method can be used irrespective of balanced or
unbalanced load.
The algebraic sum of two wattmeter reading gives the total power in the 3-phase, 3 wire star-
connected or delta connected load circuits whether the load is balanced or unbalanced.
P = W1 + W2

Energy meter errors and their adjustment.

errors and adjustments in induction type

energy meter | electroviwes
there are different types of errors in energy meter as given above :
1. phase error
2. friction error
3. speed error
4. creeping error
5. temperature error
6. frequency error
7. overload error
1. phase error

the energy meter only reads correctly when the shunt magnetic flux lags the applied voltage
by exactly 90 degree
In practical manner the pressure coil circuit in energy meter is not purely inductive there are
some resistance across the pressure coil circuit.hence the current taken by pressure coil does
not lag the applied voltage across the pressure coil by exactly 90 degree
this error is found in energy meter and is known as phase error
by the cause of this error energy meter measure the inaccurate measurments it is not eligible
to measure accurately at all the power factors to reduce this error some adjustments are done
in energy meter to increase the inductance of pressure coil circuit it is placed on the central
limb of the shunt magnet core
to adjust the error more efficiently further a copper shading band is placed on the central limb
of the core of shunt magnet by moving the copper shading band along the limb the inductance
of the pressure coil can be increased
the inductance is adjusted to such a value that the circuit becomes purely inductive
2.friction error
driving torque is a very important in energy meter this driving torque is opposes by the
frictional torque is developed when the aluminium disc rotates there is friction at the spindle
bearing and the registering mechanism.
this error makes serious impact to light loads.it is necessary to arrange for a small torque
whose value is independent of the load on the meter and whose direction is same as that of
the driving torque.to remove the error from the device magnitude of this additional torque
should be equal to the excess frictional torque.
this is usually obtained by a small shading loop placed between the central limp of the shunt
magnet and the aluminium disc slightly the one side of the central limp of the shunt magnet.
the interaction between the portion of the flux which are shaded and unshaded by this loop
currents get induced in the aluminum disc due to this current get induced in the aluminium
disc
3.speed error
speed of the disc is sometimes high and low due to this discontinuous speed their is error in
the final record values of the energy meter this error is known as the speed error.
this error is reduced with the help of brake magnet
if the speed of the disc is increase by the rated speed the brake magnet is moved away from
the spindle this increases the braking torque value for reducing the speed
on the other hand if the speed of the disc is less than the rated speed the brake magnet is
moved toward the spindle this reduces the braking torque value for increasing the speed
4.creeping error.
the disc of the energy meter makes slow but continuous rotation when only the pressure coil
is excited but there is no current flowing through the load or through the current coil due to
excessive voltage across the pressure coil and incorrect frictional compensation this is called
as creeping error.
due to this creeping error energy meter records the readings when the meter is not working or
off
to overcome this error two holes are made in the aluminium disc in opposite direction about
the spindle due to this rotation of aluminium disc is limited to maximum half a revolution the
disc stop rotating when one of the holes comes under any one pole of the shunt magnet
the creeping of energy meter can be stopped by connecting iron wire or iron piece on the
aluminium disc the brake magnet is a permanent magnet hence it will attract the iron piece
making the disc stationary.
5.temperature error
as we know the resistance of metals are increased when temperature is increased this causes
resistance of metallic part in the device is increased
• a small decrease in the pressure coil flux, thus resistance of the coil increases
this affect the angle between the voltage across the pressure coil and pressure coil
current.
• decrease in torque produces by all shading bands. this ill causes increase in the
resistance of the eddy current path in the 'aluminium' disc
these error are small since the various effects produced intended to neutralise each other this
error is known as the temperature error

let us take an example of temperature error: as temperature increase resistance of pressure

coil increases hence the current in the pressure coil decreases. hence phi pc decrease hence
the driving torque Td decreases as Td decreases the speed of the disc decreases as Tb directly
proportional to speed hence Tb decreases.

6.frequency error

energy meter is designed to operate accurately for a particular frequency generally 50Hz

if the supply frequency changes the reactance of the coil changes. small error may be
introduced in the meter reading.

this error is known as the frequency error

7.overload error

this error is due to the grater current flows from the current coil of the meter as compared to
the rated value of the full load current.

this causes saturation of the series magnet and meter tends to be slow at high load currents.

meter can be compensated for this error by providing the flux diverter to the series magnet.

it is made up of such a material that it begins to saturate at a suitable value of overload

current

thus it drives a smaller portion of the flux at higher loads and tends to increase the driving
torque proportional to load currents.