5 mark

1) Define Network Topology? Explain different types of topologies.

Ans= Network Topology refers to the arrangement or layout of different elements (links, nodes, etc.)
in a computer network. It describes how various devices (like computers, routers, switches, etc.) are
interconnected and how data flows between them. Understanding network topology is crucial for
designing, managing, and troubleshooting networks. There are several types of network topologies,
each with its own advantages and disadvantages. Here are the most common types:
1. Bus Topology:- Description: In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a single central cable,
known as the bus. Data sent from one device travels along the bus until it reaches its destination.
 Advantages:
 Easy to implement and extend.
 Requires less cable than other topologies.
 Disadvantages:
 If the central cable fails, the entire network goes down.
 Performance degrades as more devices are added.
2. Star Topology:-Description: In a star topology, all devices are connected to a central hub or
switch. Data passes through the hub before reaching its destination.
 Advantages: Easy to install and manage.
 Failure of one device does not affect the rest of the network.
 Disadvantages: If the central hub fails, the entire network is affected.
 Requires more cable than bus topology.
3. Ring Topology :-Description: In a ring topology, each device is connected to two other devices,
forming a circular pathway for data. Data travels in one direction (or both, in a dual-ring topology).
 Advantages: Data packets travel at high speeds.
 Easier to identify faults in the network.
 Disadvantages:A failure in any single device can disrupt the entire network.
 Adding or removing devices can be difficult.
4. Mesh Topology
 Description: In a mesh topology, each device is connected to multiple other devices. This can
be a full mesh (where every device is connected to every other device) or a partial mesh
(where some devices are connected to all, and others are connected to only a few).
 Advantages:Highly reliable; if one connection fails, data can take another path.
 Excellent for redundancy and fault tolerance.
5) Tree topology, 6) hybride topology
2) Explain function of each layer of ISO-OSI reference Model.
Ans= The ISO/OSI (International Organization for Standardization/Open Systems Interconnection)
reference model is a conceptual framework used to understand and implement network protocols in
seven distinct layers. Each layer serves a specific function and interacts with the layers directly above
and below it. Here’s a breakdown of each layer and its functions:
1. Physical Layer (Layer 1) :-Function: The physical layer is responsible for the transmission and
reception of raw bitstreams over a physical medium. It defines the electrical, mechanical, and
procedural specifications for the physical connection.
 Key Responsibilities: Transmission of raw data bits over a physical medium (cables, fiber
optics, etc.). Defines hardware specifications, such as voltage levels, timing, and data
rates.Handles physical aspects of network connections, including connectors and signaling.
2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2) :- Function: The data link layer provides node-to-node data transfer
and handles error correction from the physical layer. It ensures reliable communication between
directly connected devices.
Key Responsibilities:Framing: Encapsulates packets from the network layer into frames.Addressing:
Uses MAC (Media Access Control) addresses to identify devices on the same local network.
Error detection and correction: Identifies and corrects errors that may occur during transmission.
Flow control: Manages data transmission rates to prevent overwhelming the receiver.
3. Network Layer (Layer 3) :-Function: The network layer is responsible for routing data packets
between devices across different networks. It determines the best path for data to travel from the
source to the destination.
Key Responsibilities: Logical addressing: Assigns IP addresses to devices and manages addressing
schemes. Routing: Determines the best path for data packets through the network using routing
protocols.Packet forwarding: Forwards packets to the next hop on the path to the
destination.Fragmentation and reassembly: Breaks down packets into smaller units for transmission
and reassembles them at the destination.
4. Transport Layer (Layer 4) :-Function: The transport layer ensures reliable data transfer between
end systems and provides error recovery and flow control. It manages the segmentation of data and
controls the reliability of the communication.
Key Responsibilities: Segmentation: Divides large messages into smaller segments for
transmission.Reliability: Ensures complete data transfer through acknowledgments and
retransmissions (e.g., TCP).Flow control: Manages the rate of data transmission to prevent
congestion.Connection management: Establishes, maintains, and terminates connections between
devices.
5. Session Layer (Layer 5):- Function: The session layer manages sessions or connections between
applications. It establishes, maintains, and terminates communication sessions.
Key Responsibilities:Session establishment: Initiates and maintains communication sessions between
applications.Session management: Controls the dialog between applications, including full-duplex or
half-duplex communication. Presentation Layer (Layer 6) 7. Application Layer (Layer 7)
3) What is wireless transmission? Explain any two media in detail.
Ans= Wireless Transmission refers to the transfer of information over a distance without the use of
wires or cables. It utilizes electromagnetic waves to transmit data through the air, making it essential
for mobile communication, Wi-Fi, and satellite communications.
Two Media of Wireless Transmission:
1 )Radio Waves: Description: Radio waves are electromagnetic waves with frequencies ranging
from 3 kHz to 300 GHz. They are widely used for broadcasting audio and video signals, as well as for
mobile communications.
Applications: Used in AM/FM radio, television broadcasting, and cellular networks. They can
penetrate through obstacles and cover large distances, making them suitable for various applications.
2.Microwaves:
Description: Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with frequencies between 300 MHz and 300
GHz. They are used for point-to-point communication and require line-of-sight transmission.
Applications: Used in satellite communications, radar, and wireless LANs (Wi-Fi). Microwaves can
carry large amounts of data and are effective for long-distance communication.

4) Define the bridge? Explain the types of bridge

Ans- Bridge: A bridge is a networking device that connects two or more network segments, allowing
them to function as a single network. It operates at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model
and helps in filtering traffic, reducing collisions, and improving network performance.
Types of Bridges:
Transparent Bridge:Function: Operates without requiring any configuration. It learns the MAC
addresses of devices on each segment and forwards frames based on the destination address.
Use Case: Commonly used in local area networks (LANs) to connect segments.
Source Route Bridge: Function: Requires the sender to specify the route that the data should take
through the network. It is primarily used in Token Ring networks.
Use Case: Useful in networks where the path needs to be controlled or monitored

5) Define Computer Network? Explain goals of Computer Network.

Ans= Computer Network: A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices (computers,
servers, routers, etc.) that communicate with each other to share resources and information.
Goals of Computer Network:Resource Sharing: Allow multiple users to share resources such as
printers, files, and internet connections.
1. Communication: Facilitate communication between users through email, messaging, and
video conferencing. 2) Data Sharing: Enable users to access and share data across different
devices and locations. 3) Scalability: Support the growth of the network by allowing the
addition of new devices without significant changes.
4)Reliability: Ensure consistent and reliable communication, minimizing downtime and data loss.
 6) What is addressing? Explain different types of Addresses.
Ans=Addressing: Addressing refers to the method of identifying devices on a network so that data
can be sent to the correct destination.
Different Types of Addresses:
1) MAC Address: Description: A unique identifier assigned to network interfaces for
communications at the Data Link Layer. It is a 48-bit address usually represented in hexadecimal
format.
Use: Used for local network communication and is essential for Ethernet networks.
2) IP Address: Description: A numerical label assigned to each device connected to a computer
network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. It can be IPv4 (32-bit) or IPv6 (128-bit).
Use: Used for identifying devices on the internet and routing packets between networks.

7) Explain propagation methods in detail.

Ans= Propagation Methods refer to the ways in which signals travel through a medium. The main
methods include:
1) Ground Wave Propagation: Description: Signals travel along the surface of the Earth. This
method is effective for low-frequency radio waves and can cover long distances.
Use Case: Used in AM radio broadcasting.
2)Sky Wave Propagation: Description: Signals are reflected off the ionosphere and return to Earth.
This method allows for long-distance communication, especially at night.
Use Case: Used in shortwave radio communications.
3)Line-of-Sight Propagation: Description: Signals travel directly from the transmitter to the receiver
without any obstacles. This method is used for microwave and satellite communications.
Use Case: Essential for point-to-point communication links.

8) Explain Firewall and its Security Features.

Ans= Firewall: A firewall is a network security device that monitors and controls incoming and
outgoing network traffic based on predetermined security rules. It acts as a barrier between a trusted
internal network and untrusted external networks, such as the internet.
Security Features of Firewalls:
Packet Filtering: Inspects packets and allows or blocks them based on IP addresses, port numbers,
and protocols. This helps prevent unauthorized access to the network.
Stateful Inspection: Monitors the state of active connections and makes decisions based on the
context of the traffic. It allows only packets that are part of an established connection.
Proxy Service: Acts as an intermediary between users and the internet. It can cache data, filter
content, and hide the internal network structure from external users.
Intrusion Detection and Prevention: Monitors network traffic for suspicious activity and
9) Draw TCP/IP model and state the function of each layer.
Ans= The TCP/IP model consists of four layers:
Application Layer: Function: Provides network services directly to user applications. It includes
protocols like HTTP, FTP, and SMTP for web browsing, file transfer, and email.
Transport Layer: Function: Ensures reliable data transfer between devices. It includes protocols like
TCP (connection-oriented) and UDP (connectionless) for managing data transmission.
Internet Layer: Function: Responsible for routing packets across networks. It includes the Internet
Protocol (IP) for addressing and routing data.
Network Interface Layer: Function: Handles the physical transmission of data over the network
medium. It includes protocols for Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and other network technologies.

10) Compare connection oriented and connectionless services.

Ans = 1)Connection-Oriented Services:
Definition: Establishes a connection before data transmission begins. It ensures reliable delivery and
order of packets. Example: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol).
Features: Reliable data transfer with acknowledgments.Flow control and error recovery.Connection
setup and teardown.
2) Connectionless Services:
Definition: Sends data without establishing a connection. Each packet is treated
independently.Example: UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
Features: Faster transmission due to no connection setup.No guarantees for delivery or order.Suitable
for applications where speed is critical, such as video streaming.

11) What is Router? Explain its components.

 Ans= A router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks,
acting as a traffic director for data transmission.
 Function:
Routers connect two or more networks, allowing devices on different networks to communicate.
 Key Components:
 Ports: Physical connections for connecting to other networks or devices.
 Processor: Processes data packets and makes routing decisions.
 Memory: Stores routing tables, configuration, and other data.
 Routing Table: A database that stores information about network paths and IP
addresses.
 Firmware: Software that controls the router's operation.
 12) What is Ethernet? What are it's types? Explain any one in detail.
Ans= Definition: Ethernet is a widely used networking technology for connecting devices in local
area networks (LANs), metropolitan area networks (MANs), and wide area networks (WANs).
Types: 1) 10BASE-T: Uses twisted-pair cables for data transmission at 10 Mbps.
2)100BASE-T (Fast Ethernet): Uses twisted-pair cables for data transmission at 100 Mbps.
3) 1000BASE-T (Gigabit Ethernet): Uses twisted-pair cables for data transmission at 1 Gbps.
4) 10GBASE-T: Uses twisted-pair cables for data transmission at 10 Gbps.
5)100BASE-T (Fast Ethernet) in Detail: Speed: Transmits data at 100 Mbps, faster than 10BASE-
T.
Media: Uses twisted-pair cables (Cat5 or higher) for data transmission. Applications: Commonly
used for connecting workstations, servers, and other network devices in LANs.

13) Compare ISO-OSI reference model and TCP/IP model.

Ans-

Feature ISO-OSI Model

Layers 7 Layers (Application, Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, Data Link, Physical)

Development Theoretical model developed by ISO

Layer Functions Each layer has distinct functions and responsibilities

Protocol
Protocols can be developed independently for each layer
Independence

Usage Primarily used for teaching and understanding networking concepts

Flexibility More rigid structure with defined layers

14) What is cryptography? Explain encryption and decryption process.
Ans= Cryptography: Cryptography is the practice and study of techniques for securing
communication and information by transforming it into a format that is unreadable to unauthorized
users. It ensures confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity of data.
Encryption Process: Definition: The process of converting plaintext (readable data) into ciphertext
(unreadable data) using an algorithm and a key.
Steps: Plaintext: The original message that needs to be secured.
Algorithm: A mathematical procedure used to transform the plaintext into ciphertext.
Key: A secret value used in conjunction with the algorithm to encrypt the data.
Ciphertext: The resulting encrypted message that is unreadable without the key.

Decryption Process: Definition: The process of converting ciphertext back into plaintext using an
algorithm and a key.
Steps: Ciphertext: The encrypted message that needs to be converted back to its original form.
Algorithm: The same mathematical procedure used for encryption, but applied in reverse.
Key: The same secret value used during encryption to decrypt the data.
Plaintext: The resulting original message that is now readable.

15) Explain Fiber optic cable in detail.

Ans= Fiber Optic Cable: Fiber optic cable is a type of cable that uses thin strands of glass or plastic
fibers to transmit data as light signals. It is known for its high bandwidth and long-distance
transmission capabilities.
Components: Core: The central part of the fiber where light travels. It is made of glass or plastic and
has a high refractive index.
Cladding: A layer surrounding the core that reflects light back into the core, allowing it to travel
through the fiber. It has a lower refractive index than the core.
Buffer Coating: A protective layer that shields the fiber from physical damage and environmental
factors.
Outer Jacket: The outermost layer that provides additional protection and insulation.
Types of Fiber Optic Cables: Single-Mode Fiber: Has a small core diameter (about 8-10 microns)
and allows only one mode of light to propagate. It is used for long-distance communication due to
lower attenuation and higher bandwidth.
Multi-Mode Fiber: Has a larger core diameter (about 50-62.5 microns) and allows multiple modes of
light to propagate. It is used for shorter distances, such as within buildings.
Advantages: High bandwidth capacity, allowing for faster data transmission.Immune to
electromagnetic interference, providing a more reliable connection. Lightweight and thinner than
copper cables, making installation easier.
16) What is networking? Explain different types of network
Ans= Networking: Networking refers to the practice of connecting computers and other devices to
share resources and information. It enables communication between devices and facilitates data
exchange.
Different Types of Networks:
1. Local Area Network (LAN):
 Description: A network that covers a small geographic area, such as a home, office,
or building. It typically uses Ethernet or Wi-Fi for connectivity.
 Use Case: Connecting computers, printers, and servers within a limited area.
2. Wide Area Network (WAN):
 Description: A network that covers a large geographic area, often connecting
multiple LANs. It uses leased telecommunication lines or satellite links.
 Use Case: Connecting branch offices of a company across cities or countries.
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
 Description: A network that spans a city or a large campus, connecting multiple
LANs within that area.
 Use Case: Used by municipalities or large organizations to connect various locations
within a city.
4. Personal Area Network (PAN):
 Description: A small network used for connecting personal devices, typically within
a range of a few meters.
 Use Case: Connecting smartphones, tablets, and laptops using Bluetooth or Wi-Fi.
17) Explain TCP/IP protocol in details.
Ans= TCP/IP Protocol: The TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a set of
communication protocols used for the internet and similar networks. It is the foundational protocol
suite that enables devices to communicate over the internet.
Key Components of TCP/IP Protocol Suite:
1. Application Layer:
 Function: Provides protocols for specific applications, enabling user-level services.
Common protocols include:
 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring web pages.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring files between
computers.
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used for sending emails.
2. Transport Layer:
 Function: Manages end-to-end communication and data flow control. It includes:
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): A connection-oriented protocol that
ensures reliable data transmission through error checking, acknowledgments,
and retransmissions.
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol): A connectionless protocol that allows for
faster data transmission without the overhead of error checking and
acknowledgments, suitable for applications like video streaming.
3. Internet Layer:
 Function: Responsible for addressing and routing packets across networks. Key
protocols include:
 IP (Internet Protocol): Provides logical addressing (IP addresses) and
routing of packets. It includes:
 IPv4: Uses 32-bit addresses, allowing for approximately 4.3 billion
unique addresses.
 IPv6: Uses 128-bit addresses, significantly increasing the number of
available addresses to accommodate the growing number of devices
on the internet.
4. Network Interface Layer:
 Function: Handles the physical transmission of data over various types of network
media. It includes protocols for Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and other technologies that define
how data is physically transmitted over the network.
18) What is guided media? Explain types of guided media.
Ans= Guided Media: Guided media refers to transmission media that provide a physical path for
signals to travel. It includes cables and other physical mediums that guide the data signals from the
sender to the receiver.
Types of Guided Media:
1. Twisted Pair Cable:
 Description: Consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together to reduce
electromagnetic interference. It is commonly used in telephone and data networks.
 Categories: Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): Widely used in LANs, available in
various categories (e.g., Cat 5e, Cat 6) that define performance standards.
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Includes shielding to further reduce
interference, used in environments with high electromagnetic interference.
2. Coaxial Cable:
 Description: Comprises a central conductor, an insulating layer, a metallic shield, and
an outer insulating layer. It is used for cable television and broadband internet.
 Advantages: Offers higher bandwidth and better resistance to interference compared
to twisted pair cables.
3. Fiber Optic Cable:
 Description: Uses thin strands of glass or plastic to transmit data as light signals. It is
known for high bandwidth and long-distance transmission capabilities.
Types:Single-Mode Fiber: Allows only one mode of light to propagate, suitable for long-distance
communication.
Multi-Mode Fiber: Allows multiple modes of light, used for shorter distances.

19) Explain Active and Passive Hub

Ans= Active Hub: An active hub is a networking device that connects multiple Ethernet segments
and regenerates the signal to extend the distance over which data can travel. It requires a power source
to operate and can amplify signals, making it suitable for larger networks.
Features: Signal Regeneration: Boosts the signal strength to prevent data loss over long distances.
Intelligent Features: May include management capabilities, such as monitoring traffic and managing
connections.
Passive Hub: A passive hub is a simpler device that connects multiple network segments without
amplifying or regenerating the signal. It does not require a power source and simply acts as a junction
point for cables.
Features:
 No Signal Boosting: Does not enhance the signal, which can lead to data loss over longer
distances.
 Cost-Effective: Generally
  20) What are repeaters? Explain different types of repeaters.
Ans= Repeaters: A repeater is a network device that receives a signal, amplifies it, and retransmits it
to extend the range of a network. It is used to regenerate signals in order to overcome distance
limitations in wired and wireless networks.
Types of Repeaters:
1. Wired Repeaters:
 Description: Used in wired networks to extend the range of signals transmitted over
cables. They regenerate the electrical signals to ensure that data can travel longer
distances without degradation.
 Use Case: Commonly used in Ethernet networks to connect segments that are too far
apart for direct communication.
2. Wireless Repeaters:
 Description: Used in wireless networks to extend the coverage area of a wireless
signal. They receive the wireless signal, amplify it, and retransmit it to areas with
weak or no signal.
 Use Case: Often used in homes and offices to eliminate dead zones in Wi-Fi
coverage.

21) What are different mode of communication? Explain with sketch.

Ans= Modes of Communication: Modes of communication refer to the various ways in which
information can be transmitted between parties. The primary modes include:
1. Simplex Communication:
 Description: A one-way communication mode where data flows in only one
direction. One device transmits, while the other only receives.
 Example: A keyboard sending data to a computer.
2. Half-Duplex Communication:
 Description: A two-way communication mode where data can flow in both
directions, but not simultaneously. Devices take turns to send and receive data.
 Example: Walkie-talkies, where one person speaks while the other listens, and then
they switch roles.
3. Full-Duplex Communication:
 Description: A two-way communication mode where data can flow in both directions
simultaneously. Both devices can send and receive data at the same time.
 Example: Telephone conversations, where both parties can talk and listen
simultaneously.
22) What is security services? Explain security mechanisms to provide the services.
Ans= Security Services: Security services are measures and protocols designed to protect data and
ensure the integrity, confidentiality, and availability of information in a network. They help safeguard
against unauthorized access, data breaches, and other security threats.
Security Mechanisms:
1. Authentication: Verifies the identity of users or devices before granting access to resources.
Common methods include passwords, biometrics, and digital certificates.
2. Encryption: Transforms data into an unreadable format to protect it from unauthorized
access. Only authorized users with the correct decryption key can access the original data.
3. Access Control: Regulates who can access specific resources and what actions they can
perform. This can be implemented through user permissions, roles, and policies.
4. Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems (IDPS): Monitors network traffic for
suspicious activity and can take action to block or alert administrators about potential threats.
5. Firewalls: Acts as a barrier between trusted and untrusted networks, filtering incoming and
outgoing traffic based on security rules.

23) Explain Bluetooth in details.

Ans= Bluetooth: Bluetooth is a wireless communication technology that allows devices to connect
and exchange data over short distances using radio waves. It is commonly used for connecting
peripherals such as headphones, keyboards, and smartphones.
Key Features:
1. Short-Range Communication: Typically operates within a range of 10 meters (33 feet),
making it suitable for personal area networks (PANs).
2. Low Power Consumption: Designed for low energy usage, making it ideal for battery-
operated devices.
3. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum: Uses frequency hopping to minimize interference
and improve security. It rapidly switches frequencies during transmission, making it difficult
for eavesdroppers to intercept data.
4. Profiles: Bluetooth defines various profiles that specify how different types of devices
communicate. Common profiles include:
 A2DP (Advanced Audio Distribution Profile): For streaming high-quality audio.
 HSP (Headset Profile): For connecting headsets to mobile devices.
 HID (Human Interface Device Profile): For connecting input devices like
keyboards and mice.
5. Pairing: Devices must be paired before they can communicate. This process typically
involves entering a PIN or confirming a code on both devices.
24) What is standard? What is their needs? Explain the two types of standard.
Ans= Standard: A standard is an established norm or requirement that provides guidelines for
processes, products, or services. Standards ensure consistency, safety, and quality across various
industries and technologies.
Need for Standards:
1. Interoperability: Standards enable different systems and devices to work together seamlessly
, facilitating communication and data exchange across diverse platforms.
2. Quality Assurance: They help maintain a certain level of quality and performance, ensuring
that products and services meet specific criteria.
3. Safety: Standards often include safety guidelines that protect users and consumers from
potential hazards associated with products and services.
4. Efficiency: By providing clear guidelines, standards can streamline processes, reduce costs,
and improve productivity.
5. Market Access: Compliance with recognized standards can enhance a product's marketability
and acceptance, as customers often prefer products that meet established norms.
Two Types of Standards:
1. De Facto Standards:
 Description: These are standards that have become widely accepted and used, often
through market dominance or popularity, rather than through formal approval by a
standards organization.
 Example: The QWERTY keyboard layout is a de facto standard for keyboard design,
widely adopted due to its early use and familiarity.
2. De Jure Standards:
 Description: These are formal standards established by recognized organizations or
regulatory bodies. They undergo a rigorous approval process and are documented for
public use.
 Example: IEEE 802.11 is a de jure standard for wireless networking, developed by
the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) to ensure compatibility
and interoperability among wireless devices.
25) What is Fast Ethernet? Explain categories of Fast Ethernet.
Ans= Fast Ethernet: Fast Ethernet is an extension of the original Ethernet standard that supports data
transmission speeds of 100 Mbps. It is designed to provide higher bandwidth for local area networks
(LANs) while maintaining compatibility with existing Ethernet technologies.
Categories of Fast Ethernet:
1)100BASE-TX:Description: The most common Fast Ethernet standard, using twisted-pair cabling
(Category 5 or higher) for transmission.
Distance: Supports distances of up to 100 meters between devices.
Use Case: Widely used in LANs for connecting computers, switches, and routers.
2) 100BASE-FX:Description: A Fast Ethernet standard that uses fiber optic cables for transmission.
It is designed for longer distances and higher immunity to electromagnetic interference.
Distance: Supports distances of up to 400 meters for multimode fiber and up to 2 kilometers for
single-mode fiber.
Use Case: Suitable for connecting buildings in a campus environment or for long-distance
connections.
3) 100BASE-T4:Description: An older Fast Ethernet standard that uses four pairs of twisted-pair
cables to achieve 100 Mbps. It is less common today due to the prevalence of 100BASE-TX.
Distance: Supports distances of up to 100 meters.
Use Case: Primarily used in legacy systems where existing cabling infrastructure is limited.

26) Explain server based and peer to peer LANS.

Ans= Server-Based LAN: A server-based local area network (LAN) is a network architecture where a
central server provides resources, services, and management to client devices. The server handles
tasks such as file storage, application hosting, and user authentication.
Characteristics: Centralized Management: The server manages user accounts, permissions, and
resources, making it easier to control access and maintain security.
Resource Sharing: Clients can access shared resources such as files, printers, and applications hosted
on the server.
Scalability: Server-based LANs can easily accommodate additional clients and resources as the
network grows.
Peer-to-Peer LAN: A peer-to-peer (P2P) LAN is a decentralized network architecture where each
device (peer) can act as both a client and a server. Devices communicate directly with each other to
share resources without a central server.
Characteristics: Decentralized Management: Each device manages its own resources and
permissions, leading to a more flexible but less controlled environment.
Resource Sharing: Users can share files, printers, and other resources directly with one another.
Simplicity: Easier to set up and maintain for small networks, as it does not require a dedicated server.
28) What is attack? Explain various types of attacks.
Ans= Attack: An attack refers to any attempt to compromise the integrity, confidentiality, or
availability of a computer system, network, or data. Attacks can be executed by individuals or groups
with malicious intent, often referred to as attackers or hackers.
Various Types of Attacks:
1. Malware Attacks: Description: Involves malicious software designed to harm or exploit
devices and networks. Common types include viruses, worms, Trojans, and ransomware.
Impact: Can lead to data loss, system damage, and unauthorized access to sensitive information.
2) Phishing Attacks: Description: A social engineering attack where attackers impersonate legitimate
entities to trick users into revealing personal information, such as passwords or credit card numbers.
Impact: Can result in identity theft, financial loss, and unauthorized access to accounts.
3) Denial of Service (DoS) Attacks:
Description: An attack that aims to make a service unavailable by overwhelming it with traffic or
exploiting vulnerabilities. Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks involve multiple
compromised systems attacking a single target.
Impact: Can disrupt services, leading to downtime and loss of revenue for businesses.
4) Man-in-the-Middle (MitM) Attacks: Description: An attack where the attacker intercepts and
alters communication between two parties without their knowledge. This can occur in unsecured
networks.
Impact: Can lead to data theft, unauthorized access, and manipulation of communications.
5) SQL Injection Attacks: Description: An attack that targets web applications by injecting
malicious SQL code into input fields, allowing attackers to manipulate databases.
Impact: Can result in unauthorized access to sensitive data, data corruption, and loss of data integrity.

29) Explain IEEE standard 802.11 (WLAN) in details

Ans= EEE Standard 802.11: The IEEE 802.11 standard defines the protocols for wireless local area
networks (WLANs). It specifies the technical details for implementing wireless communication in
various environments, enabling devices to connect to a network without physical cables.
Key Features:
1. Frequency Bands: Operates primarily in the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz frequency bands, allowing
for multiple channels to reduce interference and improve performance.
2. Data Rates: Supports various data rates depending on the specific 802.11 standard being
used. For example:
 802.11b: Up to 11 Mbps
 802.11g: Up to 54 Mbps
 802.11n: Up to 600 Mbps (using multiple antennas)
  802.11ac: Up to several Gbps (using wider channels and advanced modulation
techniques)
3. Modulation Techniques: Utilizes different modulation techniques to transmit data, including
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) and Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
(OFDM).
4. Security Protocols: Incorporates security measures such as WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy),
WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access), and WPA2 to protect wireless communications from
unauthorized access.
5. Roaming Capability: Allows devices to move between different access points within the
same network without losing connectivity, making it suitable for mobile users.
Applications:
 Home Networking: Used in residential settings to connect devices like laptops, smartphones,
and smart home devices to the internet.
 Business Environments: Provides wireless connectivity in offices, allowing employees to
work from various locations without being tethered to a desk.
 Public Hotspots: Commonly found in cafes, airports, and other public places, providing
internet access to customers and visitors.