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Unit - III Error Detection and Correction

3.1 Types of Errors, Forward Error Correction versus Retransmission
Common Network Problems
There are basically 5 ways through which errors occurred during transmission that are mentioned below.
1. Transmission Error
During the data transmission phase, data may be transmitted inaccurately due to many reasons like external
electromagnetic interference, interrupted/degraded signal faulty hardware, etc. This leads to loss of data or
corrupted data packets and inconsistency in data packet arrivals which triggers non-reliable data
communication. This type of mis-transmission of data is called Transmission error. Transmission errors can
easily resolved by using error detection and correction mechanisms(CRC, checksums etc.), and high-quality
networking equipment and data cables can reduce this error.
2. Data Packet Loss
Data packets can be lost during data transmission due to the presence of errors in routing protocols, highly
congested networks, or may be for faulty networking devices. Data packet losses can lead to back-to-back
packet retransmission which results in delay in next packet arrival and reduced network performance. During
real-time communication, data-packet loss may badly affect the live streaming with distorted audio and videos
with glitches. Countermeasures involve implementing forward error correction and congestion control
technique reduces packet loss. Also, it is required to ensure that all networking devices are up-to-date and
these devices are using optimized network configurations as per requirements.
3. Network Latency
If one of the two communicating devices uses high latency but another one is running at low latency then the
delay may occur during data transmission which is called a network latency problem. It can be a consequence
of high network congestion and different processing power of two communicating devices which leads to
processing delays. The latency problem can directly effect real-time applications like online gaming and video
conferencing. In modern technology, this problem can be easily solved by only implementing Quality of
Service(QoS) techniques. Also, increasing the network bandwidth, optimizing network routing protocols, and
utilizing a caching system can reduce this problem.
4. Configuration Errors
Misconfigured or pirated software faces configuration errors which results in inaccurate network operations.
Configuration errors may lead to security vulnerabilities(mainly unauthorized access), instability in network
connectivity, and incorrect packet routing which results in communication failures.
5. Hardware Failures
Using very old and unmaintained network devices(switches, routers etc.), no backups for power-cuts or
manufacturing defect lead to hardware failure. This results network outages, high downtime, restricted
productivity for business farms or users and loss of data if no backup taken. This problem can be handled by
performing regular maintenance of networking devices, preparing alternative device if possible, taking data
backups and disaster management tools to minimize the data loss and downtime and it is also required to
replace the aged hardware in time.

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Types of Errors in Computer Network

1. Single-Bit Error
It is nothing but a special type of transmission error. During transmission of data packets from one networking
device to another, if only one bit from this whole data packet is being changed/corrupted/altered then Single-
bit transmission error occurs. This single bit corruption can be occurred due to induced noise in data
transmission cable or presence of electromagnetic interference.
Block diagram for Single-Bit error

2. Burst Error
Similarly it is one kind of Transmission error and very likely to single bit error. But in Burst error, multiple
data bits of a data packets are being changed/corrupted/ altered during transmission. And these multibit
corruption occurs in a very short period so it is called ‘Burst’. Communication line interference, impulsive
noise are the main factors which lead to burst error. As multiple bit are being corrupted so it can fully corrupt
a data packet and making it fully valueless. Burst errors can be rectified by retransmission but it consumes
additional network resources and burst error can occur in that also.

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Block Diagram for Burst error

3.2 Framing: Fixed Sized and Variable Sized Framing

Frames are the units of digital transmission, particularly in computer networks and telecommunications.
Frames are comparable to the packets of energy called photons in the case of light energy. Frame is
continuously used in Time Division Multiplexing process.
Framing is a point-to-point connection between two computers or devices consisting of a wire in which data
is transmitted as a stream of bits. However, these bits must be framed into discernible blocks of information.
Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are
meaningful to the receiver. Ethernet, token ring, frame relay, and other data link layer technologies have their
own frame structures. Frames have headers that contain information such as error-checking codes.

At the data link layer, it extracts the message from the sender and provides it to the receiver by providing the
sender’s and receiver’s addresses. The advantage of using frames is that data is broken up into recoverable
chunks that can easily be checked for corruption.
The process of dividing the data into frames and reassembling it is transparent to the user and is handled by
the data link layer.
Framing is an important aspect of data link layer protocol design because it allows the transmission of data to
be organized and controlled, ensuring that the data is delivered accurately and efficiently.
Problems in Framing
Detecting start of the frame: When a frame is transmitted, every station must be able to detect it. Station detects
frames by looking out for a special sequence of bits that marks the beginning of the frame i.e. SFD (Starting
Frame Delimiter).
How does the station detect a frame: Every station listens to link for SFD pattern through a sequential circuit.
If SFD is detected, sequential circuit alerts station. Station checks destination address to accept or reject frame.

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Detecting end of frame: When to stop reading the frame.

Handling errors: Framing errors may occur due to noise or other transmission errors, which can cause a station
to misinterpret the frame. Therefore, error detection and correction mechanisms, such as cyclic redundancy
check (CRC), are used to ensure the integrity of the frame.
Framing overhead: Every frame has a header and a trailer that contains control information such as source and
destination address, error detection code, and other protocol-related information. This overhead reduces the
available bandwidth for data transmission, especially for small-sized frames.
Framing incompatibility: Different networking devices and protocols may use different framing methods,
which can lead to framing incompatibility issues. For example, if a device using one framing method sends
data to a device using a different framing method, the receiving device may not be able to correctly interpret
the frame.
Framing synchronization: Stations must be synchronized with each other to avoid collisions and ensure
reliable communication. Synchronization requires that all stations agree on the frame boundaries and timing,
which can be challenging in complex networks with many devices and varying traffic loads.
Framing efficiency: Framing should be designed to minimize the amount of data overhead while maximizing
the available bandwidth for data transmission. Inefficient framing methods can lead to lower network
performance and higher latency.
Types of framing--There are two types of framing:
1. Fixed-size: The frame is of fixed size and there is no need to provide boundaries to the frame, the length of
the frame itself acts as a delimiter.
Drawback: It suffers from internal fragmentation if the data size is less than the frame size
Solution: Padding
2. Variable size: In this, there is a need to define the end of the frame as well as the beginning of the next
frame to distinguish. This can be done in two ways:
Length field – We can introduce a length field in the frame to indicate the length of the frame. Used in Ethernet
(802.3). The problem with this is that sometimes the length field might get corrupted.
End Delimiter (ED) – We can introduce an ED (pattern) to indicate the end of the frame. Used in Token Ring.
The problem with this is that ED can occur in the data. This can be solved by:
1. Character/Byte Stuffing: Used when frames consist of characters. If data contains ED then, a byte is stuffed
into data to differentiate it from ED.
Let ED = “$” –> if data contains ‘$’ anywhere, it can be escaped using ‘\O’ character.
–> if data contains ‘\O$’ then, use ‘\O\O\O$'($ is escaped using \O and \O is escaped using \O).

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Disadvantage – It is very costly and obsolete method.

2. Bit Stuffing: Let ED = 01111 and if data = 01111
–> Sender stuffs a bit to break the pattern i.e. here appends a 0 in data = 011101.
–> Receiver receives the frame.
–> If data contains 011101, receiver removes the 0 and reads the data.
Examples:
If Data –> 011100011110 and ED –> 0111 then, find data after bit stuffing.
--> 011010001101100
If Data –> 110001001 and ED –> 1000 then, find data after bit stuffing?
--> 11001010011

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Framing in the Data Link Layer also presents some challenges, which include:
Variable frame length: The length of frames can vary depending on the data being transmitted, which can lead
to inefficiencies in transmission. To address this issue, protocols such as HDLC and PPP use a flag sequence
to mark the start and end of each frame.
Bit stuffing: Bit stuffing is a technique used to prevent data from being interpreted as control characters by
inserting extra bits into the data stream. However, bit stuffing can lead to issues with synchronization and
increase the overhead of the transmission
Synchronization: Synchronization is critical for ensuring that data frames are transmitted and received
correctly. However, synchronization can be challenging, particularly in high-speed networks where frames
are transmitted rapidly.
Error detection: Data Link Layer protocols use various techniques to detect errors in the transmitted data, such
as checksums and CRCs. However, these techniques are not foolproof and can miss some types of errors.
Efficiency: Efficient use of available bandwidth is critical for ensuring that data is transmitted quickly and
reliably. However, the overhead associated with framing and error detection can reduce the overall efficiency
of the transmission.

Error control mechanism may involve two possible ways:

1. Error detection
2. Error correction
3.3 Error Detection: Repetition codes, Parity bits, Checksums, CRC
Error Detection
Errors in the received frames are detected by means of Parity Check and Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC).
In both cases, few extra bits are sent along with actual data to confirm that bits received at other end are same
as they were sent. If the counter-check at receiver’ end fails, the bits are considered corrupted.
Parity Check
One extra bit is sent along with the original bits to make number of 1s either even in case of even parity, or
odd in case of odd parity.

The sender while creating a frame counts the number of 1s in it. For example, if even parity is used and number
of 1s is even then one bit with value 0 is added. This way number of 1s remains even. If the number of 1s is
odd, to make it even a bit with value 1 is added.
The receiver simply counts the number of 1s in a frame. If the count of 1s is even and even parity is used, the
frame is considered to be not-corrupted and is accepted. If the count of 1s is odd and odd parity is used, the
frame is still not corrupted.
If a single bit flips in transit, the receiver can detect it by counting the number of 1s. But when more than one
bits are erroneous, then it is very hard for the receiver to detect the error.

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Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

CRC is a different approach to detect if the received frame contains valid data. This technique involves binary
division of the data bits being sent. The divisor is generated using polynomials. The sender performs a division
operation on the bits being sent and calculates the remainder. Before sending the actual bits, the sender adds
the remainder at the end of the actual bits. Actual data bits plus the remainder is called a code word. The
sender transmits data bits as code words.

Error Detection by Checksums

For error detection by checksums, data is divided into fixed sized frames or segments.
Sender's End − The sender adds the segments using 1’s complement arithmetic to get the sum. It then
complements the sum to get the checksum and sends it along with the data frames.
Receiver's End − The receiver adds the incoming segments along with the checksum using 1’s complement
arithmetic to get the sum and then complements it.
If the result is zero, the received frames are accepted; otherwise they are discarded.
Example 1– If the data unit to be transmitted is 10101001 00111001, the following procedure is used at Sender
site and Receiver site.
Sender Site:
10101001 subunit 1
00111001 subunit 2
11100010 sum (using 1s complement)
00011101 checksum (complement of sum)

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Data transmitted to Receiver is:

Receiver Site:
10101001 subunit 1
00111001 subunit 2
00011101 checksum
11111111 sum
00000000 sum's complement
Result is zero, it means no error.
Example 2 -Suppose that the sender wants to send 4 frames each of 8 bits, where the frames are 11001100,
10101010, 11110000 and 11000011.
The sender adds the bits using 1s complement arithmetic. While adding two numbers using 1s complement
arithmetic, if there is a carry over, it is added to the sum.
After adding all the 4 frames, the sender complements the sum to get the checksum, 11010011, and sends it
along with the data frames.
The receiver performs 1s complement arithmetic sum of all the frames including the checksum. The result is
complemented and found to be 0. Hence, the receiver assumes that no error has occurred.

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3.4 Error Correction: Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ), Hamming Code

Hamming Code Explanation
Hamming code is a class of error-correcting codes that can detect and correct errors in transmitted data. It
works by adding parity bits to the original data bits to create a larger code word. The idea is that, using a
combination of parity bits, it can detect and correct single-bit errors, making communication more reliable.
The key concept is to position parity bits at specific locations in the code word, typically at positions that are
powers of 2 (1, 2, 4, 8, etc.). These parity bits check the integrity of groups of bits, allowing the receiver to
determine whether an error has occurred.
Steps for Hamming Code Encoding:
Determine the number of parity bits: For a message of k data bits, the number of parity bits r should satisfy
the following condition:
This ensures that enough parity bits are present to check the bits properly.
Place the data bits in positions that are not powers of 2: The data bits are placed at the positions that are not
powers of 2, such as positions 3, 5, 6, etc.
Calculate parity bits: For each parity bit, it checks a set of data bits (and possibly other parity bits). The parity
is chosen such that the total number of 1's in each set of bits checked by a parity bit is even (even parity). The
check bits cover different combinations of data bits, ensuring that errors can be detected and corrected.
Transmit the code word: The result is the original message with added parity bits, which is sent over the
communication channel.
Example of Hamming Code Encoding
Let's encode a 4-bit message: 1011
Step 1: Number of Parity Bits
For 4 data bits, we need to determine how many parity bits r are needed.
We use the formula:
So, we need 3 parity bits.
Step 2: Arrange the Bits
We have 7 positions in total (4 data bits and 3 parity bits). Place the data bits in positions that are not powers
of 2 (positions 1, 2, 4, 8, etc.). Here’s the arrangement:
Position: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Bit type: P P D P D D D
P = Parity bits
D = Data bits
Now, place the data bits 1011 into the positions 3, 5, 6, and 7
Position: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Bit type: P P D P D D D

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Bits: ? ? 1 ? 0 1 1
Step 3: Calculate the Parity Bits
Now, we calculate the parity bits:
P1 (position 1): Checks bits 1, 3, 5, 7 (positions with 1, 3, 5, 7):
Bits 1, 3, 5, 7 = P1, 1, 0, 1
We want an even number of 1s. Currently, there are two 1s, so P1 must be 0 (even number of 1s).
P2 (position 2): Checks bits 2, 3, 6, 7 (positions with 2, 3, 6, 7):
Bits 2, 3, 6, 7 = P2, 1, 1, 1
We want an even number of 1s. Currently, there are three 1s, so P2 must be 1 (odd number of 1s, flip it to
even).
P4 (position 4): Checks bits 4, 5, 6, 7 (positions with 4, 5, 6, 7):
Bits 4, 5, 6, 7 = P4, 0, 1, 1
We want an even number of 1s. Currently, there are two 1s, so P4 must be 0 (even number of 1s).
Step 4: Final Code Word
After calculating the parity bits, the final code word is:
Position: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Bit type: P P D P D D D
Bits: 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
So, the encoded message is 0110011.
Step 5: Error Detection and Correction
If a bit error occurs during transmission, the receiver can use the parity bits to check and correct the error.
Each parity bit will check the positions it's responsible for, and if there’s a mismatch in parity, it will indicate
the position of the erroneous bit. With this information, the receiver can correct the error by flipping the
incorrect bit.
Hamming code adds parity bits to the original data to create an error-detecting and error-correcting code. By
calculating the parity bits based on the data, it ensures that single-bit errors can be detected and corrected
during transmission.
Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ)
Automatic Repeat ReQuest (ARQ) is a group of error – control protocols for transmission of data over noisy
or unreliable communication network. These protocols reside in the Data Link Layer and in the Transport
Layer of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) reference model. They are named so because they provide
for automatic retransmission of frames that are corrupted or lost during transmission. ARQ is also called
Positive Acknowledgement with Retransmission (PAR).
ARQs are used to provide reliable transmissions over unreliable upper layer services. They are often used in
Global System for Mobile (GSM) communication.

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Working Principle
In these protocols, the receiver sends an acknowledgement message back to the sender if it receives a frame
correctly. If the sender does not receive the acknowledgement of a transmitted frame before a specified period
of time, i.e. a timeout occurs, the sender understands that the frame has been corrupted or lost during transit.
So, the sender retransmits the frame. This process is repeated until the correct frame is transmitted.
Types of ARQ Protocols
There are three ARQ protocols in the data link layer.

Stop – and – Wait ARQ − Stop – and – wait ARQ provides unidirectional data transmission with flow control
and error control mechanisms, appropriate for noisy channels. The sender keeps a copy of the sent frame. It
then waits for a finite time to receive a positive acknowledgement from receiver. If the timer expires, the frame
is retransmitted. If a positive acknowledgement is received then the next frame is sent.

Go – Back – N ARQ − Go – Back – N ARQ provides for sending multiple frames before receiving the
acknowledgement for the first frame. It uses the concept of sliding window, and so is also called sliding
window protocol. The frames are sequentially numbered and a finite number of frames are sent. If the
acknowledgement of a frame is not received within the time period, all frames starting from that frame are
retransmitted.

Selective Repeat ARQ − This protocol also provides for sending multiple frames before receiving the
acknowledgement for the first frame. However, here only the erroneous or lost frames are retransmitted, while
the good frames are received and buffered.

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IEEE 802.11 Architecture

The IEEE 802.11 standard, commonly known as Wi-Fi, outlines the architecture and defines the MAC and
physical layer specifications for wireless LANs (WLANs). Wi-Fi uses high-frequency radio waves instead of
cables for connecting the devices in LAN. Given the mobility of WLAN nodes, they can move unrestricted
within the network coverage zone. The 802.11 structure is designed to accommodate mobile stations that
participate actively in network decisions. Furthermore, it can seamlessly integrate with 2G, 3G, and 4G
networks.
The Wi-Fi standard represents a set of wireless LAN standards developed by the Working Group of IEEE
LAN/MAN standards committee (IEEE 802). The term 802.11x is also used to denote the set of standards.
Various specifications and amendments include 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11e, 802.11g, 802.11n etc.
Important Terminologies of IEEE 802.11 Architecture
Station: Stations (STA) comprise all devices and equipment that are connected to the wireless LAN. It can be
of two types:
Wireless Access Point (WAP): WAPs or simply access points (AP) are wireless routers that bridge
connections for base stations.
Client: Examples include computers, laptops, printers, and smartphones.
Access Point: It is a device that can be classified as a station because of its functionalities and acts as a
connection between wireless medium and distributed systems.
Distribution System: A system used to interconnect a set of BSSs and integrated LANs to create an ESS.
Frame: It is a MAC protocol data unit.
SSID (Service Set Identifier): It’s the network name for a particular WLAN. All-access points and devices on
a specific WLAN must use the same SSID to communicate.
SDU: It is a data unit that acts as an input to each layer. These can be fragmented or aggregated to form a
PDU.
PDU: It is a data unit projected as an output to communicate with the corresponding layer at the other end.
They contain a header specific to the layer.
Network Interface Controller: It is also known as network interface card. It is a hardware component that
connects devices to the network.
Portal: Serves as a gateway to other networks
IEEE 802.11 Architecture and Services
In the year 1990, IEEE 802.11 Committee formed a new working group, the IEEE 802.11 standard which
defines protocols for Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs). Just like how Ethernet provides services for
wired media, IEEE 802.11 architecture is designed to provide features for wireless networks.
An AP supports both wired and wireless connections. The 802.11 standard calls the upstream wired network
the distribution system (DS). The AP bridges the wireless and wired L2 Ethernet frames, allowing traffic to
flow from the wired to the wireless network and vice versa. Each wireless network has a unique SSID.

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The 802.11 architecture provides some basic services for WLANs whose implementation is supported by
MAC layer:
Basic Service Set
The Basic Service Set configuration consists of a group of stations and relies on an Access Point (AP), which
serves as a logical hub. Stations from different BSSs interact through the AP, which functions as a bridge,
linking multiple WLAN cells or channels.
Operating Modes
Depending upon the mode of operation, BSS can be categorized into the following types:
Infrastructure BSS: Communication between stations takes place through access points. The AP and its
associated wireless clients define the coverage area and form the BSS.

Independent BSS - Supports mutual communication between wireless clients. An ad-hoc network is
spontaneously created and does not support access to wired networks.

Independent Basic Service Set

In the IBSS configuration, also referred to as independent configuration or ad-hoc network, no single node is
required to act as a server. The stations communicate directly with one another in a peer-to-peer basis.
Generally, IBSS covers a limited area instead of a large network. Typically covering a specific area, IBSS is
used for specific, short-term purposes with a limited number of nodes.v

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Extended Service Set

ESS connects multiple BSSs and consists of several BSS cells, which can be interlinked through wired or
wireless backbones known as a distributed system. Multiple cells use the same channel to boost aggregate
throughput to network. The equipment outside of the ESS, the ESS and all of its mobile stations comprise a
single MAC layer network where all stations are virtually stationary. Thus, all stations within the ESS appear
stationary from an outsider's perspective.
Other components includes:
Distribution System (DS): Links APs within the ESS.
Portal: Serves as a gateway to other networks.
Roaming: In an environment with multiple access points (like a large office building or campus), a device can
move from the range of one AP to another and still maintain its connection. This is possible due to the
underlying architecture of the IEEE 802.11 standard which allows for roaming between APs.
Authentication and Association: Before a station can send or receive data frames on a WLAN, it needs to
establish its identity with an AP. This process is called authentication. After authentication, the station then
establishes a data link-layer connection with the AP through a process called association.
IEEE 802.11 standards are a set of wireless LAN protocols that differ in frequency, data rate, and interference
control.
IEEE 802.11 versions
IEEE 802.11 was the original version released in 1997. It provided 1 Mbps or 2 Mbps data rate in the 2.4 GHz
band and used either frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) or direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).
It is obsolete now.

IEEE 802.11a
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802.11a was published in 1999 as a modification to 802.11, with orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
(OFDM) based air interface in physical layer instead of FHSS or DSSS of 802.11. It provides a maximum
data rate of 54 Mbps operating in the 5 GHz band. Besides it provides error correcting code. As 2.4 GHz band
is crowded, relatively sparsely used 5 GHz imparts additional advantage to 802.11a.
Further amendments to 802.11a are 802.11ac, 802.11ad, 802.11af, 802.11ah, 802.11ai, 802.11aj etc.
IEEE 802.11b
802.11b is a direct extension of the original 802.11 standard that appeared in early 2000. It uses the same
modulation technique as 802.11, i.e. DSSS and operates in the 2.4 GHz band. It has a higher data rate of 11
Mbps as compared to 2 Mbps of 802.11, due to which it was rapidly adopted in wireless LANs. However,
since 2.4 GHz band is pretty crowded, 802.11b devices faces interference from other devices.
Further amendments to 802.11b are 802.11ba, 802.11bb, 802.11bc, 802.11bd and 802.11be.
IEEE 802.11g
802.11g was indorsed in 2003. It operates in the 2.4 GHz band (as in 802.11b) and provides a average
throughput of 22 Mbps. It uses OFDM technique (as in 802.11a). It is fully backward compatible with 802.11b.
802.11g devices also faces interference from other devices operating in 2.4 GHz band.
IEEE 802.11n
802.11n was approved and published in 2009 that operates on both the 2.4 GHz and the 5 GHz bands. It has
variable data rate ranging from 54 Mbps to 600 Mbps. It provides a marked improvement over previous
standards 802.11 by incorporating multiple-input multiple-output antennas (MIMO antennas).
IEEE 802.11p
802.11 is an amendment for including wireless access in vehicular environments (WAVE) to support
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS). They include network communications between vehicles moving at
high speed and the environment. They have a data rate of 27 Mbps and operate in 5.9 GHz band.
3.6 Bluetooth Architecture: Piconet, Scatternet
Bluetooth Architecture
Bluetooth is a network technology that connects mobile devices wirelessly over a short range to form a
personal area network (PAN). They use short-wavelength, ultra-high frequency (UHF) radio waves within the
range 2.400 to 2.485 GHz, instead of RS-232 data cables of wired PANs.
There are two types of Bluetooth networks −
• Piconets
• Scatternets
Piconets
Piconets are small Bluetooth networks, formed by at most 8 stations, one of which is the master node and the
rest slave nodes (maximum of 7 slaves). Master node is the primary station that manages the small network.
The slave stations are secondary stations that are synchronized with the primary station.
Communication can take place between a master node and a slave node in either one-to-one or one-to-many
manner. However, no direct communication takes place between slaves. Each station, whether master or slave,
is associated with a 48-bit fixed device address.

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Besides the seven active slaves, there can be up to 255 numbers of parked nodes. These are in a low power
state for energy conservation. The only work that they can do is respond to a beacon frame for activation from
the master node.

Scatter nodes
A scatternet is an interconnected collection of two or more piconets. They are formed when a node in a piconet,
whether a master or a slave, acts as a slave in another piconet. This node is called the bridge between the two
piconets, which connects the individual piconets to form the scatternet.

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3.7 Mobile Generations: 3G, 4G and 5G

Generations of wireless communication
We have made very huge improvements in wireless communication and have expanded the capabilities of our
wireless communication system. We all have seen various generations in our life. Let’s discuss them one by
one.
0th Generation:
 Pre-cell phone mobile telephony technology, such as radio telephones some had in cars before the
arrival of cell phones.
 Communication was possible through voice only.
 These mobile telephones were usually mounted in cars or trucks.
1G (1st Generation):
 First-time calling was introduced in mobile systems.
 It used analog signals.
 It used an FDD scheme and typically allocated a bandwidth of 25 Mhz.
 The coverage area was small.
 No roaming support between various operators.
 Low sound quality.
 Speed:- 2.4 kbps.
2G (2nd Generation) :
 Shifted from analog to digital.
 It supported voice and SMS both.
 Supported all 4 sectors of the wireless industry namely Digital cellular, Mobile Data, PCS, WLAN,
 Moderate mobile data service.
 2G WLAN provided a high data rate & large area coverage.
 Speed:- 64 kbps.
 2.5G came after 2G which used the concept of GPRS. Streaming was also introduced and mail services
too. Then came 2.75G or EDGE which was faster in providing services than 2.5G. It gave faster
internet speed up to 128kbps and also used edge connection.
3G (3rd Generation) :
 The Internet system was improved.
 Better system and capacity.
 Offers high-speed wireless internet.
 The connection used was UMTS and WCMA.
 Speed:- 2mbps.

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4G (4th Generation) :
 IP-based protocols.
 LTE (Long term evaluation) was mainly for the internet.
 Vo-LTE (Voice over LTE) is for both voice and the internet.
 Freedom and flexibility to select any desired service with reasonable QoS.
 High usability.
 Supports multimedia service at a low transmission cost.
 HD Quality Streaming.
 Speed:-100mbps.
5G (5th Generation): It is yet to come in many countries but here are some notable points about 5G.
 Higher data rates.
 Connectivity will be more fast and more secure,
 Data Latency will be reduced to a great level.
 Massive network capacity.
 It is 30 times faster than 4G.
 There would be more flexibility in the network.

Data Communication & Computer networking Mrs. Archana Kalia VPM’s Polytechnic,Thane