Part I Ethernet

1.1 Ethernet LANs

The most widely used local-area network (LAN) access method - defined by the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) - is the 802.3 Error: Reference source not found
standard. Ethernet has become so popular, that most Apple computers and many PCs are
fabricated directly with 10/100 Ethernet ports for home use. These ports enable you not only to
create a small home network, but also to connect to the Internet via a Digital Subscriber Line
(DSL) or cable modem, which requires an Ethernet connection. A 10/100 port was created for a
network interface, which supports both 10BASE-T at 10 megabits per second (Mbps) and
100BASE-T at 100 Mbps.

Ethernet is a shared-media LAN, which means that all stations on the segment use a part of the
total bandwidth. Depending on the type of Ethernet implemented, this total bandwidth is a 10
Mbps (Ethernet), 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet), or 1000 Mbps (Gigabit Ethernet). In a shared
Ethernet environment all hosts are connected to the same bus and compete with each other for
the bandwidth. In such an environment packets meant for one machine are received by all the
other machines. Thus, any machine in such an environment placed in promiscuous mode will be
able to capture packets meant for other machines and can therefore listen to all the traffic on the
network using the carrier sense multiple access with collision detect (CSMA/CD) mechanism
like in Point-to-Multipoint communication.

A switched Ethernet environment - in which the hosts are connected to a switch instead of a hub
- is called a Switched Ethernet. The switch maintains a table keeping track of each computer's
MAC address and delivers packets destined for a particular machine by sending it to the port on
which that machine is connected.

The switch is an intelligent device that sends packets to the destined computer only and does not
broadcast to all the machines on the network. It means each sender and receiver pair has the full
bandwidth available for use e.g. Point-to-Point case. Ethernet LANs use Media Access Control
(MAC) address to determine how traffic is transferred between network segments. Ethernet hubs,
defined by Open System Interconnection (OSI) model physical layer (Layer 1) repeat only the
physical signal; the hub does not look at a source or destination address. Ethernet bridges and
switches use the source and destination MAC address, defined by the OSI data link layer (Layer
2) to build an interface table and to determine which segment should receive the frame. Routers
use the network address, found at the OSI network layer (Layer 3) to build a routing table.

1.2 Media Access Control (MAC) Addressing

MAC address Error: Reference source not found Error: Reference source not found is a unique
serial number assigned and burned into each network adapter that differentiates network cards,
just as your house number is unique on your street and identifies your home among others. To be
a part of any network, you must have an address so that you will be able to be reached. Two
types of addresses are found in a network: the logical (OSI model Layer 3, network) and the
physical (OSI model Layer 2, data link). For this part of the thesis the physical address (also
known as the Media Access Control [MAC] address) is relevant.

A MAC address is the physical address of the device. It is 48 bits (6 bytes) long and is made up
by two parts: the organizational unique identifier (OUI) and the vendor-assigned address, as
illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Stucture of the MAC Address

The MAC address on a computer might look like this: 00-08-a1-08-c8-13. This MAC address is
used for the Fast Ethernet adapter on a given computer. The OUI is 00-08-a1, and the vendor-
assigned number is 08-c8-13.

The OUI is administered by the IEEE and identifies the vendor of the network adapter. The
vendor-assigned part of the MAC address is assigned by the vendor. The combination of the OUI
and the vendor-assigned number ensures that none of the network adapters could have the same
MAC address.
1.3 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detect
(CSMA/CD)
CSMA/CD Error: Reference source not found is a set of rules determining how network devices respond
when two devices attempt to use a data channel simultaneously (called a collision). Standard Ethernet
networks use CSMA/CD to physically monitor the traffic on the line at participating stations. If no
transmission is taking place at the time, the particular station can transmit. If two stations attempt to
transmit simultaneously, this causes a collision, which is detected by all participating stations. The
stations that collided attempt to transmit again after a random time interval. If another collision occurs,
the time intervals from which the random waiting time is selected are increased step by step. This is
known as exponential back off.

CSMA/CD is a type of contention protocol. Networks using the CSMA/CD procedure are simple to
implement, but do not have deterministic transmission characteristics. The CSMA/CD method is
internationally standardized in IEEE 802.3 and ISO 8802.3.

1.4 Full-Duplex Ethernet

Full-duplex Error: Reference source not found is an optional mode of operation allowing simultaneous
communication between a pair of stations. The link between the stations must use a point-to-point media
segment, such as twisted-pair or fiber optic media, to provide independent transmit and receive data
paths. With full-duplex mode enabled, both stations can simultaneously transmit and receive, which
doubles the aggregate capacity of the link. For example, a half-duplex Fast Ethernet twisted-pair segment
provides a maximum of 100 Mbps of bandwidth. When operated in full-duplex, the same 100BASE-TX
twisted-pair segment can provide a total bandwidth of 200 Mbps.

Another major advantage of full-duplex operation is that the maximum segment length is no longer
limited by the timing requirements of shared channel half-duplex Ethernet. In full-duplex mode, the only
limits are those set by the signal carrying capabilities of the media segment. This is especially useful for
fiber optic segments.
1.5 Ethernet LAN Equipment
This subchapter addresses the suitability for different environments of various types of hardware, hubs,
bridges, and switches and how each piece of hardware functions specifically in an Ethernet environment
Error: Reference source not found, Error: Reference source not found.

1.5.1 Hubs
Hub is a multiport repeater and is used to create collision domains, in which all devices on the
network can see each other. If the distance between devices increases, the signal quality begins
to deteriorate as segments exceed their maximum length, often a couple hundred feet. Hubs
provide the signal amplification required to allow a segment to be extended a greater distance. A
hub takes an incoming signal from anyone of the ports and repeats on each of its out ports to
enable users to share the Ethernet network resources.

Ethernet hubs create star topologies in 10-Mbps or 100-Mbps half-duplex Ethernet LANs. It is
the hub that enables several point-to-point segments to be joined together into one single
network, and this network of hubs sets up a shared Ethernet, just as several point-to-point roads
join together a single large network of roads you use to get around in a town.

1.5.2 Bridges
Bridges add a level of intelligence to the network by using the MAC address to build a table of hosts,
mapping these hosts to a network segment and containing traffic within these network segments.

Ethernet bridges map the MAC addresses of the network devices, or nodes, residing on each network
segment. Bridges allow only necessary traffic to pass through the bridge, such as traffic is destined for a
segment other than the source. When a frame is received by the bridge, the bridge looks at the frame
header and reads the source and destination MAC addresses, determining the frame sender and
destination. If the frame's source and destination segments are the same, the frame is dropped, or filtered
by the bridge; if the segments differ, the bridge forwards the frame to the correct segment.
1.5.3 Switches
A switch performs the same functions as a bridge; so when the switch receives a frame, it
examines the destination and source MAC addresses and compares them to a table of network
segments and addresses. If the segments are the same, the frame is dropped, or filtered; if the
segments differ, the frame is forwarded to the proper segment. The frames-filtering and
regeneration of forwarded frames enables switches to split a network into separate collision
domains. Frame regeneration enables greater distances and more network devices, or nodes, to
be used in the total network design, and lowers the overall collision rates.

Ethernet switches are an expansion of Ethernet bridging in that switches can link several LANs
together. In linking several LANs together, switches forward frames between these LAN
segments using one of two basic methods: cut through and store and forward.

1.6 Virtual LANs

Virtual LAN (VLAN) Error: Reference source not found, Error: Reference source not found is a
single broadcast domain. All devices connected to the VLAN receive broadcasts sent by any
other VLAN members. However, devices connected to a different VLAN will not receive those
same broadcasts. (Naturally, VLAN members also receive nicest packets directed toward them
from other VLAN members.)

A VLAN consists of hosts defined as members, communicating as a logical network segment. In

contrast, a physical segment consists of devices that must be connected to a physical cable
segment. A VLAN can have connected members located anywhere in the campus network, as
long as VLAN connectivity is provided among all members. Layer 2 switches are configured
with a VLAN mapping and provide the logical connectivity among the VLAN members.

VLAN Membership

When a VLAN is provided at an access-layer switch, an end user must have some means of
gaining membership to it.
Static VLANs

Static VLANs offer port-based membership, in which switch ports are assigned to specific
VLANs. End-user devices become members in a VLAN based on the physical switch port to
which they are connected. No handshaking or unique VLAN membership protocol is needed for
the end devices; they automatically assume VLAN connectivity when they connect to a port.

Dynamic VLANs

Dynamic VLANs provide membership based on the MAC address of an end-user device. When
a device is connected to a switch port, the switch must, in effect, query a database to establish
VLAN membership. A network administrator also must assign the user's MAC address to a
VLAN in the database of a VLAN Membership Policy Server (VMPS).

1.6.1 IEEE 802.1Q

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has defined the 802.1Q Error:
Reference source not found standard for VLANs, ensuring the interoperability of VLAN
implementations between switches and network interface cards (NICs) from different vendors.
Because of the various types of VLAN definitions, each vendor has developed its own unique
and proprietary VLAN solution and product. Without some common ground, such as an open
standard, switches from one vendor will not interoperate with VLANs from other vendors. The
IEEE's 802.1Q standard was developed to address the problem of how to break large networks
into smaller parts so broadcast and multicast traffic wouldn't grab more bandwidth than
necessary. The standard also helps provide a higher level of security between segments of
internal networks.

The 802.1Q specification establishes a standard method for inserting virtual LAN (VLAN) membership
information into Ethernet frames.

A VLAN is an administratively configured LAN or broadcast domain. Instead of going to the wiring
closet to move a cable to a different LAN, network administrators can accomplish this task remotely by
configuring a port on an 802.1Q-compliant switch to belong to a different VLAN. The ability to move
end stations to different broadcast domains by setting membership profiles for each port on centrally
managed switches is one of the main advantages of 802.1Q VLANs.