Hydraulic & Pneumatic Power Systems

March 19th, 2025

BUI QUANG THANH, Ph.D.

Department of Aeronautics
University of Science and Technology of Hanoi

Email: [email protected]
 LECTURE 2

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 CONTENTS
III. HYDRAULIC FLUID
1. Quality required
2. Synthetic liquid – Skydrol/HyJet
3. Main hydraulic fluid used in aircraft
4. Compatibility with aircraft materials
5. Caution – Health and handling

IV. HYDRAULIC RESERVOIRS AND ACCUMULATORS.

1. Components of hydraulic system (recall)
2. Contamination
3. Non pressurized reservoirs
4. Pressurized reservoirs
5. Accumulators

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 III. HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
1. QUALITY REQUIRED
A good hydraulic fluid must answer the majority of the following criteria:
- It must be practically incompressible, at least up to 35000 kPa
- It must have good lubricating characteristics with metal and rubber
- Its viscosity must be low and relatively constant with temperature variations
- Its freezing point must be very low
- Its high point of boiling (higher than +80℃),
- Its flash point higher than 100℃.
- It must be non flammable and chemically inert
- It must not to be corrosive
- It must have an accessible price and to be available easily

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 III. HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
1. QUALITY REQUIRED
Variable base type of fluids exists with different The most common used hydraulic fluid in commercial
standards. Below are three principal categories aviation is Phosphate-ester base where two
of hydraulic fluids : companies dominate the markets with their products:
Phosphate-ester base: Eastman (Solutia) with their brand Skydrol and Exxon
with their brand HyJet.
US/NATO Military specification – MIL-H-8446
Boeing Seattle – BMS3-11 Materials used in the hydraulic system must be
Airbus Industries – NSA307110 compatible with the hydraulic fluid, so both materials
and components are carefully selected by the
SAE – AS1241 airframe manufacturer. The aircraft industry uses
Mineral oil base: many synthetic materials that are resistant to Skydrol
Mil-PRF-5606 (originally Mil-H-5606): fluids, but some are not. Most materials that are not
totally resistant require long exposure before damage
Mil-PRF-6083: Usable from -54℃ to 135℃ results. Deviations from the recommended materials
Synthetic hydrocarbon base: should not be made without prior consultation with the
Mil-H-83282 airframe manufacturer and the material component
suppliers.
Mil-H-87257
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 III. HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
2. SYNTHETIC LIQUID – SKYDROL/HYJET:

SKYDROL and HyJet are used in the majority of the transport aircrafts and the
supersonic aircrafts.

Based on phosphate esters, these hydraulic fluids, are identified by number

MIL.H.8446 and their crimson color.

These fluids resists fire well and work in wide range of temperatures from −55℃ to
+177℃, with a limit of 132℃ in continuous operation.

They are compatible only with synthetic joints (butyl kind).

The major disadvantages are fluid sensitivity to the moisture which changes its
chemical nature and causes layers of sediment and varnish in the conduits, and its
corrosive effects on ordinary painting and electrical insulators. Any leakage must
be controlled immediately.

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 III. HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
3. MAIN HYDRAULIC FLUID USED IN AIRCRAFT:
Mineral base hydraulic fluid (MIL-H-5606):
MIL-H-5606 is the most widely used hydraulic fluid in general aviation
aircraft today.
It is basically a kerosene-type petroleum product, having good lubricating
properties and additives to inhibit foaming and prevent the formation of
corrosion.
Characteristics:
Color dyed red,
Flammable
Usable only with synthetic rubber seals
Usable from −65℉ −54℃ 𝑡𝑜 275℉ (135℃)
Developed in the 1940s

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 III. HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
3. MAIN HYDRAULIC FLUID USED IN AIRCRAFT:

Synthetic base phosphate esters hydraulic fluid:

Skydrol/HyJet are the most advanced aviation hydraulic fluid supported by recognized
experts in phosphate-ester fluid technology.
• Color clear purple,
• Non-petroleum base
• Fire-resistant,
• Low weight fluid,
• Formulated for use in large and jumbo jet transport aircraft where weights is a prime
factor.
SKYDROL is compatible only with synthetic joints (butyl kind)

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 III. HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
4. COMPATIBILITY WITH AIRCRAFT MATERIALS:
- Aircraft hydraulic systems designed around Skydrol/HyJet fluids should be virtually trouble-free if properly
serviced.
- Skydrol/HyJet do not appreciably affect common aircraft metals – aluminum silver, silver, zinc,
magnesium, cadmium, iron, stainless steel, bronze, chromium, and others – as long as the fluid is kept
free of contamination.
- Due to the phosphate ester base of synthetic hydraulic fluids, thermoplastic resins, including vinyl
compositions, nitrocellulose lacquers, oil base paints, linoleum and asphalt may be softened chemically
by these fluids.
- Skydrol/HyJet will attack polyvinyl chloride; and must not be allowed to drip on to electrical wiring, as it
will break down the insulation. However, this chemical reaction usually requires longer than just momentary
exposure; and spills that are wiped up with soap and water do not harm most of these materials.
- Skydrol/HyJet are compatible with natural fibers and with a number of synthetics, including nylon and
polyester, which are used extensively in many aircraft.
- Petroleum oil hydraulic seals of neoprene or Buna-N are not compatible with Skydrol/HyJet and
must be replaced with seals of butyl rubber or ethylene propylene elastomers for units that are
intended for use in systems utilizing phosphate ester base hydraulic fluid. These seals are readily available
from suppliers.
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 III. HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
5. CAUTION – HEALTH AND HANDLING:
- Hydraulic fluid does not present any particular health hazard in its recommended use.
- Hydraulic fluid has a very low order of toxicity when taken orally or applied to the skin in liquid form.
- It causes pain on contact with eye tissue, but animal studies and human experience indicate that it causes
no permanent damage. First aid treatment for eye contact includes flushing the eyes immediately with large
volumes of water and the application of an anesthetic eye solution. If pain persists, the individual should be
referred to a physician.
- In mist or fog form, Skydrol is quite irritating to nasal or respiratory passages and generally produces
coughing and sneezing. Such irritation does not persist following cessation of exposure.
- Silicone ointments, rubber gloves, and careful washing procedures should be utilized to avoid excessive
repeated contact with Skydrol in order to avoid solvent effect on skin.

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 IV. HYDRAULIC RESEVOIRS AND ACCUMULATORS

1. CONTAMINATION:
This aids in settling the contamination and separating the air from the fluid
Large reservoirs are desirable for cooling.
A large reservoir also reduces recirculation which helps settle contamination and separate air.
As a “thumb rule”, the ideal reservoir should be two to three times the pump output per minute.
However, due to space limitations in mobile and aerospace system, the benefits of a large reservoir
may have to be sacrificed. But they must be large enough to accommodate thermal expansion of
the fluid and changes in fluid level due to system operation. Reservoirs are of two general types:
- Non-pressurized
- Pressurized

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 IV. HYDRAULIC RESEVOIRS AND ACCUMULATORS
2. NON PRESSURIZED RESERVOIRS:

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 IV. HYDRAULIC RESEVOIRS AND ACCUMULATORS
2. NON PRESSURIZED RESERVOIRS:
The reservoir is a tank in which an adequate supply of fluid for the system is stored. Fluid flows
from the reservoir to the pump, where it is forced through the system and eventually returned to the
reservoir.
The reservoir not only supplies the operating needs of the system, but it also replenishes fluid lost
through leakage.
Furthermore, the reservoir serves as an overflow basin for excess fluid forced out of the system by
thermal expansion (the increase of fluid volume caused temperature changes), the accumulators,
and by piston and rod displacement.
The reservoir also furnishes/provides a place for the fluid to purge/refine itself of air bubbles that
may enter the system.

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 IV. HYDRAULIC RESEVOIRS AND ACCUMULATORS
2. NON PRESSURIZED RESERVOIRS:
Foreign matter picked up in the system may also be separated from the fluid in the reservoir, or as
it flows through line filters.
Most non pressurized reservoirs contain filters to maintain the hydraulic fluid in a clean state, free
from foreign matter.
They are usually located in filler necks and internally within the reservoir,
The mesh-type filter (finger strainer), usually installed in the filler neck, removes foreign particles
form fluid that is added to the reservoir.
Internally installed filters clean the fluid as it returns to the reservoir from the system. This type of
installation may have a bypass valve incorporated to allow fluid to bypass the filter if it becomes
clogged.
Some modern aircraft hydraulic reservoirs do not incorporate this feature.

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 IV. HYDRAULIC RESEVOIRS AND ACCUMULATORS
2. NON PRESSURIZED RESERVOIRS:
All reservoirs containing filters are designed to permit easy
removal of the filter element for cleaning or replacement.
Hydraulic systems designed to operate equipment at or near
sea level are normally equipped with non-pressurized
reservoirs.
This type is open to the atmosphere, and allows atmospheric
pressure in to push the hydraulic fluid into-the inlet side of the
pump.

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 IV. HYDRAULIC RESEVOIRS AND ACCUMULATORS
2. NON PRESSURIZED RESERVOIRS:
Components:
- Vent cap: This is a cap normally located on top of
the reservoir and will sometimes act as a filler cap
for adding oil to the system.
- Baffle plate: This is a flat plate which extends
lengthwise through the center of the tank
- Sight glass: This is a device that is used to indicate
oil level inside the reservoir.
- Inspection cover: Sometimes this is called an
“access cover” and is used to allow the operator a
means of getting into the reservoir for inspection
and cleaning of the tank.
- Drain plug: This is plug that is normally located at
the lowest point in the bottom of the reservoir to
allow for the draining of the fluid.
- Strainers: May be located at the end of the pump
inlet line, immersed below the fluid level.

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 IV. HYDRAULIC RESEVOIRS AND ACCUMULATORS
2. NON PRESSURIZED RESERVOIRS:

Note:

Atmospheric pressure: the pressure that is exerted by the weight of the earth’s atmosphere.
This pressure will decrease at higher elevations, and increase at surfaces below sea level. The
atmospheric pressure at sea level is 14.7 PSI

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 IV. HYDRAULIC RESEVOIRS AND ACCUMULATORS
3. PRESSURIZED RESERVOIRS:

Fluid-pressurized reservoir Air-pressurized reservoir

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 IV. HYDRAULIC RESEVOIRS AND ACCUMULATORS
3. PRESSURIZED RESERVOIRS:
A pressurized reservoir is required in hydraulic systems where atmospheric pressure is insufficient to
maintain a Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) to the pump.
Pressurized reservoirs have generally five ports:
- Pump suction
- Return
- Pressurizing
- Overboard drain
- Bleed
Fluid is supplied to the pump through the pump suction port
Fluid returns to the reservoir from the system through the return port.
Pressure from the pump enters the pressurizing cylinder in the top of the reservoir through the pressurizing
port. The overboard drain port is used to drain the reservoir while performing maintenance, and the bleed
port is used as an aid when servicing the reservoir.

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 IV. HYDRAULIC RESEVOIRS AND ACCUMULATORS
3. PRESSURIZED RESERVOIRS:
The reservoir consists of:
A container that has a greater internal volume than the fluid that it has to hold, this allows for both
thermal expansion of the fluid and the change in fluid level when unbalanced double acting
actuators retract.
The dashed line shows the “slack” fluid level, this condition will only exist when the aircraft is put
into the correction position.
For example:
• Undercarriage down and locked,
• Flaps retracted,
• All accumulators dissipated and correctly pre-charged,
• Reservoir unloaded.

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 IV. HYDRAULIC RESEVOIRS AND ACCUMULATORS
3. PRESSURIZED RESERVOIRS:
• The lower line shows the working level, this is the level to which the fluid will drop when the
accumulators are fully charged, the fluid level will now vary around this level as services are
operated.
• The method of checking the level is normally via a sight glass this can take the form of a clear
external tube, or a clear circular disk. These will be marked with upper and lower limit lines. The
lower line shows the level when the system is cold and the upper line when the system is hot
after operation.
• To remove air and dissolved gasses from the returning fluid, the fluid is passed over a de-aerator
tray, this can take several forms, the two common ones are:
• A flat tray which has a lip and is perforated with small holes,
• A series of stepped small trays that are lipped and perforated with small holes,

These allow the returning fluid to spread out and the dissolved gasses and air to “boil” out of the
fluid, while clear fluid is able to drop back into the body of fluid below without enfolding air into it.
The air is able to vent to airspace above the fluid and then the atmosphere.

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 IV. HYDRAULIC RESEVOIRS AND ACCUMULATORS
3. PRESSURIZED RESERVOIRS:
• The reservoir must be vented to atmosphere to ensure that a partial vacuum is not formed above the fluid
as the level drops to the working line. If the reservoir is subjected to only the ambient atmospheric pressure
then as the aircrafts climbs the drop in pressure can result in:
- The fluid evaporating
- A corresponding drop in the supply pressure at the inlet to the pump, foaming due to the expansion of
dissolved gasses within the fluid.
• To overcome this in modern reservoirs the airspace above the fluid is pressurized, this is termed “loading”
the reservoir, conversely when the pressure is removed it is termed “unloading”. The air source can be
taken from the aircraft’s engines or a cylinder of compressed air, a vent valve is set to an upper limit and
protects the reservoir from over pressurization when the level increases. The values quoted for this are
between 5 and 15 PSI

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 IV. HYDRAULIC RESEVOIRS AND ACCUMULATORS
3. PRESSURIZED RESERVOIRS:
The main advantage of this is that the fluid is supplied to the pump inlet is already under pressure,
which prevents a “cavitation” forming in the inlet pipe. This also allows the reservoir to be located
below the pump and the air pressure will force the fluid up the supply pipe into the pump’s inlet,
unloading the reservoir will result in the fluid level in the reservoir rising as the fluid finds its own
level.
If a reservoir mounted below its pump was to become unloaded during operation then the pump
has to be able to draw the fluid from the reservoir and provide at least 75% normal power to the
system.
The reservoir has a filler point for fluid replenishment. Located within the neck of the filler is a
gauze filter to prevent the ingress of foreign objects, adjacent to the filler will be marked the type of
fluid to be used. This gives the person servicing the reservoir a final chance to check that the
correct fluid is being used.

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 IV. HYDRAULIC RESEVOIRS AND ACCUMULATORS
3. PRESSURIZED RESERVOIRS:

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 IV. HYDRAULIC RESEVOIRS AND ACCUMULATORS
4. ACCUMULATORS:
4.1. Principle and function:
A hydraulic accumulator is an energy storage device. It is a pressure storage reservoir in which a
non-compressible hydraulic fluid is held under pressure by an external source.
That external source can be a spring, a raised weight, or a compressed gas.
The main reasons that an accumulator is used in a hydraulic system are so that the pump doesn’t
need to be so large to cope with extremes of demand, so that the supply circuit can respond more
quickly to any temporary demand and to smooth pulsations.

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 IV. HYDRAULIC RESEVOIRS AND ACCUMULATORS
4. ACCUMULATORS:
4.1. Principle and function:

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 IV. HYDRAULIC RESEVOIRS AND ACCUMULATORS
4. ACCUMULATORS:
4.1. Principle and function:

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 IV. HYDRAULIC RESEVOIRS AND ACCUMULATORS
4. ACCUMULATORS:
4.1. Principle and function:

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 IV. HYDRAULIC RESEVOIRS AND ACCUMULATORS
4. ACCUMULATORS:
4.1. Principle and function:
Compressed gas at about one half the system
Pressure is let into the accumulators through gas valve. This
forces the diaphragm that separates the oil side from the gas
side to “pop” up towards the oil side, then oil is sent through the
system. When the system pressure reaches a point when it is
greater than the pressure of the accumulator, the diaphragm will
deploy (inflate).
Using Boyle’s Law, the compressed gas will increase in pressure
as its volume decreases. The diaphragm will move up or down,
depending on system pressure.

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 IV. HYDRAULIC RESEVOIRS AND ACCUMULATORS
4. ACCUMULATORS:
4.1. Principle and function:
Compressed gas is usually Nitrogen, why?
There are a number of reasons for using Nitrogen in Accumulators, the most common one is that it
does not react with Hydraulic Oil in the system. Though it does but the effects are to a minimum and
mostly due to impurities in the system. While if we use normal compressed air, the Oxygen and
Hydraulic Oil if combine under high pressure can form an explosive mixture which can prove to be
dangerous.

And since it composes nearly 78 percent of the earth's atmosphere, it is the least expensive gas
that can be used safely.

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 IV. HYDRAULIC RESEVOIRS AND ACCUMULATORS
4. ACCUMULATORS:
4.2. Types of accumulators:

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 IV. HYDRAULIC RESEVOIRS AND ACCUMULATORS
4. ACCUMULATORS:
4.2. Types of accumulators:
Direct-contact accumulator:
Direct-contact gas-to-fluid accumulators generally are used in very large
installations where it would be very expensive to require a piston or
bladder-type accumulator.
This type of accumulator consists of a fully enclosed cylinder, mounted in a
vertical positon, containing a liquid port on the bottom and a pneumatic
charging port at the top.
The use of this type of accumulator with flammable fluid is dangerous
because there is a possibility of explosion if any oxygen is present in gas,
and pressure surges generate excessive heat. For this reason, safety
fluids are used in this type of installation.

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 IV. HYDRAULIC RESEVOIRS AND ACCUMULATORS
4. ACCUMULATORS:
4.2. Types of accumulators:
Piston-type accumulator:
Piston-type accumulators consist of a cylindrical body called a barrel,
closures on each end called heads, and an internal piston. The piston may
be fitted with a tail rod, which extends through one end of the cylinder, or it
may not have a tail rod at all. In the later case, it is referred to as a floating
piston
Hydraulic fluid is pumped into one end of the cylinder and the piston is
forced toward the opposite end of the cylinder against a captive charge of
air or an inert gas such as nitrogen.

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 IV. HYDRAULIC RESEVOIRS AND ACCUMULATORS
4. ACCUMULATORS:
4.2. Types of accumulators:
Bladder-type accumulator:
Bladder-type or bag-type accumulators consist of a shell or case with a
flexible bladder inside the shell. The bladder is larger in diameter at the top
(near the air valve) and gradually tapers to a smaller diameter at the
bottom.

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 IV. HYDRAULIC RESEVOIRS AND ACCUMULATORS
4. ACCUMULATORS:
4.2. Types of accumulators:
Diaphragm-type accumulator:
The diaphragm-type accumulator is constructed in two halves which are
either screwed or bolted together. A synthetic rubber diaphragm is installed
between both halves, making two chambers.
Two threaded openings exist in the assembled component.
The opening at the top contains a screen disc which prevents the
diaphragm form extruding through the threaded opening when system
pressure is depleted, thus rupturing the diaphragm.

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 IV. HYDRAULIC RESEVOIRS AND ACCUMULATORS
4. ACCUMULATORS:
4.4. Applications of accumulators

Accumulator as an auxiliary power source

Accumulator as a leakage compensator
Accumulator as an emergency power source
Accumulator as a hydraulic shock absorber
Accumulator as a thermal expansion compensator

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 IV. HYDRAULIC RESEVOIRS AND ACCUMULATORS
4. ACCUMULATORS:
4.5. Accumulator calculation and size selection
For isothermal condition, the Boyle–Mariotte law can be rewritten

This case usually uses for leakage/volume compensator

For adiabatic condition,
n =1.4 for nitrogen gas, 1/n = 0.7143

Overall, for weight balancing/volume compensation applications:

P0 = 0.9 P1 at temperature T2
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 IV. HYDRAULIC RESEVOIRS AND ACCUMULATORS
4. ACCUMULATORS:
4.5. Accumulator calculation and size selection
Emergency energy reserve or power buffer, typical occasion when storage is slow (isothermal) and discharge is quick
(adiabatic).

P0 = 0.9 P1 at temperature T2

Pulsation compensator, pulsation damping is typically an adiabatic condition because both storage and discharge have to
be accomplished in a very short time.
q is the pump flowrate in liters and a constant k that depends on whether the pump is
single-acting or double-acting and the number of pistons involved.

Hydraulic line shock suppression, a rapid increase in pressure caused by a high

acceleration or deceleration in flow is commonly known as water hammer. The extent of over
pressure, ΔPmax, that takes place in piping when a valve is closed is influenced by the length
of the piping, the flow rate, the density of the liquid and the valve shut down time.

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 EXERCISES
1. An input cylinder with a diameter of 30 mm is connected to an output cylinder with a diameter of 80mm. A force of
1000 N is applied to the input cylinder.
(a) What is the output force?
(b) How far do we need to move the input cylinder to move the output cylinder 100 mm?

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 EXERCISES
2. A force of F = 850 N is applied to the smaller cylinder
of a hydraulic jack. The area a of the small piston is 15
cm2 and the area A of the larger piston is 150 cm2. What
load W can be lifted on the larger piston in 2 cases:
(a) if the pistons are at the same level,
(b) if the large piston is 0.75 m below the smaller one?
The mass density ρ of the liquid in the jack is 103 kg /m3.

(b)

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 EXERCISES
3. A hydraulic molding press is kept closed at a maximum system pressure of 200 kgf/cm2 for a duration of 60
min during the curing period. The maximum leakage permitted during this period is 2 cm3/minute and
minimum fall in pressure permitted is 198 kgf/cm2. Calculate the accumulator volume.

4. A hydraulic cylinder has to move a certain load through a certain distance in 1 s at a pressure of 140 bar.
An accumulator is integrated into the circuit to provide peak power. The accumulator is charged for the
first 20 s and discharged in 2 s. The delivery expected from the accumulator is 0.6 L in 2 s as the pressure
falls from 250 to 140 bar. Calculate the accumulator volume. The operating temperature is +25–70ºC. Also
calculate the reduction in input power due to the accumulator.

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 EXERCISES
5.
a) Calculate the work required for a pump to pump water from a well to ground level 125 m above the bottom
of the well. At the inlet to the pump, the pressure is 96.5 kPa, and at the system outlet, it is 103.4 kPa.
Assume the constant pipe diameter. Use  = 9810 N/m3, and assume it to be constant. Neglect any flow
losses in the system.
b) Solve the above problem if there is friction in the system whose total head loss equals 12.5 m.

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