Primary and Secondary

Distribution Systems
(Design and Operation)

1
 Part I
Primary Distribution Systems
 Outlines
 Introduction.
 Primary Distribution System Components.
 A Typical Primary Distribution System.
 Primary Distribution Feeder Voltage Levels.
 Primary Distribution Feeder Loading.
 Tie Lines.
 Radial Feeders Loading.
 Radial Primary Distribution System Design.
 Introduction
 It is the part of distribution system that is between
distribution substations and distribution transformers.

 The main components of the primary distribution system

are:
– Main feeders (three-phase, four wire circuit),
– Laterals (one, two or three-phase wire circuit), and
– Sub-laterals.

 Normally a number of the main feeders are emanated

from the substation to cover the substation service area.

 Main feeders exit the distribution substation through a

feeder breaker as underground cables in a concrete duct-
bank (feeder getaway) till they reach an overhead pole.
However, in urban areas the main is kept underground.
 Introduction (Cont’d)
 The primary distribution feeders feed their service
territories and may be connected to other feeders through
N.O. tie switches.
 To cover the whole feeders’ service areas, laterals are
taped off the main feeder through fuses, reclosers, or
automatic sectionalizers. Furthermore, the sub-laterals are
tapped off laterals.
 Feeders are planned by starting from the substation with
the main trunk portion of the largest economical
conductor and generally follow streets, roads, highways
and property boundaries
 There are two types of primary distribution feeders and
laterals:
– Overhead that use pole-mounted transformers, and
– Underground that utilize pad-mount transformer
Introduction (Cont.)
Distribution substation low voltage side


3 Primary main
Recloser

R R 3 Laterals

Fixed capacitor bank

R 
Lateral fuse cutout 3 Recloser

Transformer fuse
Pole mounted
transformer

Pothend Underground lateral

N.O. Tie switch
Switched capacitor bank

Pad mount
transformer

1 Sectionalizing switch 
1 Overhead lateral
S S

Distribution
transformer

N.O. Tie switch

Connection to adjacent
feeder circuit
 Primary Distribution System
Components
 The main component of the primary distribution
system is the distribution feeders. A typical
feeder’s essential components are shown below
 Primary Distribution System
Components (Cont.)
 Primary distribution feeders have specific characteristics
and particular connections as follows:
– They are grounded star lines.
– The commonly used voltage levels are 12.47 kV phase to phase, 7.2 kV
phase to neutral, 34.5 kV phase to phase, and 20 kV phase to neutral.
– They are normally laid along right of ways.
– The voltages and construction methods used for distribution systems are
governed by the National Electric Safety Code (NESC).

 The NESC specifies the following items:

– The strength of materials and the safety factors used in the proposed
structures.
– The clearances between conductors and the surrounding structures for
different operating voltages and under different local conditions.
Sample of the NESC Feeder’s Construction
Specifications
Sample of the NESC Feeder’s Construction
Specifications (Cont.)
Sample of the NESC Feeder’s Construction
Specifications (Cont.)
 Overhead Feeder Components
 Due to the fact that these feeders are mounted on poles, they are
easily installed and maintained. These components are less
expensive than those of the underground type. However, they face a
lot of problems such as: weather exposure, aesthetic look, and
vehicle accidents.
 The components associated with the overhead feeders are:

 Poles.  Reclosers
 Overhead feeders (transmission lines).  Sectionalizers.
 Insulators.  Shunt capacitors.
 Sectionalizing switches.  Voltage regulators.
 Fuse cutouts.  Pole-mounted transformers.
 Gang-operated switch.  Lightning protection
 Backup current limiting fuses  Feeder automation
 Overhead Feeder Components (Cont’d)
 Poles:
– Poles are made of wood, steel, and concrete which are used to mount
the primary distribution feeders.

 Overhead feeders (transmission lines).

– Feeders distribute power to distribution transformers. These feeders
are either bare or insulated conductors
– Two standard measurements are used for the feeder size which are:
• American Wire Gauge (AWG)
• Circular Mills (CM), one circular mill is the area of a circle having a
diameter of 1 mil (1 inch=1000 mils).
– The most frequently used overhead conductors are:
• Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced (ACSR)
• All Aluminum Conductor (AAC)
• All Aluminum Alloy Conductor (AAAC)

– The overhead feeders’ characteristics are determined by their

impedances (resistances and reactances) and ampere capacity
(ampacities)
 Overhead Feeder Components (Cont’d)
 Insulators.
– Insulators are placed between energized conductors and the
structure. There are different types of insulators; some of them are
shown below

 The main classes of these

insulators are:
– Glass insulators
– Porcelain Insulators
– Suspension/Ball insulator:
– Post Type
 Overhead Feeder Components (Cont’d)
 Sectionalizing switches.
– These switches are similar to distribution substation disconnecting
switches and they used to reconfigure the distribution system by
opening and closing
 Fuse cutouts
– They are containers carrying the expulsion fuse links. These fuses
are not capable of cutting the high fault current.
 Gang-operated switch.
– It is an old version of manually operated switches that open or
close to isolate a faulty line. The operation is done through a
control mechanism at the down pole near the ground.
 Backup current limiting fuses
– They are placed in fuse cutouts that force zero currents to clear the
fault and reduce its energy.
 Underground Feeder Components
 Raise poles.
– It conducts the overhead feeders to underground cables in a conduit .
 Cables.
– Cables are either a single or three-phase insulated conductors made of wires covered by
dielectric insulators. The insulator is characterized by its withstanding voltage, leakage
current and its material
 Cable terminations.
– They are devices installed at the end of a cable with bolts to allow the cable to be
connected to other equipment.
 Cable splice.
– They are devices used to connect two cables with either identical or different insulations.
To connect or disconnect cable splices, they must be de-energized first.
 Load break elbows.
– They are “L” shaped single-phase load break switches. These cable terminations can be
disconnected while they are energized up to 200 Amps.
 Pad-mounted distribution transformers.
– It consists of a non-metal/metal locked container that includes: distribution transformer
(Single-phase of 10-500 kVA and three-phase of 75-5000 kVA), cable terminations, and
switching equipment.
Underground Feeder Components (Cont’d)
 Advantages:
– They provide more public safety.
– They are protected from storms and lightning so outages are very
few.

 Disadvantages:
– The underground distribution system is more costly compared to the
overhead system. Underground distribution needs cable trenches,
ducts, vaults, etc.
– The underground distribution system is more expensive to repair in
case of a permanent fault compare to the overhead outage.
– The underground distribution system requires a longer time to repair
compare to overhead lines.
 Typical Primary Distribution System
Radial Primary Distribution Feeder System Configurations

 used in low load densities

in rural areas. The feeder’s
size is large at the
substation exit and reduces
as the feeder branches far
from the substation
 It has the lowest cost and
suffers from low reliability
 Radial Type Primary Feeder With Tie And Sectionalized
Switches
Distribution substation low voltage side

 A modified radial system consists of:

1. The first lateral is tapped off the
main feeder, and then sub-laterals  
1 Sub-Laterals 3 Primary main
are branched from laterals.

2. The second lateral represents a 1 Laterals
modified laterals’ connection
with the main feeder through a
cutout fuse.
3. The third lateral has sectionalizing
switches and the feeder has a tie Lateral fuse cutout
switch to be connected to other
Transformer fuse
feeders.
 This configuration helps in
restoring the power in case of Sectionalizing
fault by switching to unfaulted switch
S S
feeders. S
Distribution
transformer

N.O. Tie switch

 Radial Type Primary Feeder With Express Feeder And
Backfeed

 Express feeder and

backfeed (without
tapped off laterals or
sub-laterals) from
substation to load
centers
 Radial Type Phase-area Feeder

A radial phase-area
feeder configuration
is also used by
dividing the loads to
be served by each
feeder phase in its
area
 Loop Type Primary Feeder

It is formulated by
connecting two feeders
at their ends by N.O. tie
disconnecting switch (or
tie breaker)
 Loop Configuration

More breakers are used in

the main feeder in order to Distribution substation low voltage side
disconnect the faulted
section from the main
supply.
This configuration
increases the system
reliability but increases the
cost
N.O.
 Primary Network System

 the main feeders

are interconnected
to different
substations.
 Each feeder has
CB at each end.
 The radial feeders
are tapped off the
main feeder
 Primary Selective Service System

Each important customer

could be fed from more
than one feeder using a Distribution substation low voltage side
transfer switch
This configuration has
better reliability but is
more expensive

N.O.
 Primary Distribution Feeder
Voltage Levels
 The choice of the primary feeder voltage level affects
the design, the operation and the cost of the primary
distribution system.

 The most common primary distribution voltage levels

are: 12.47/7.2 kV, 24.9/14.4 kV, and 34.5/19.92 kV.

 The selected voltage determines the maximum length

of individual feeders and their loading, and the number
of feeders and the number of distribution substations
supplied from each feeder.
 The Influence of the Voltage Levels on
Primary Distribution Feeder

Primary feeder voltage level selection

Feeder & Poles Substation Electric parameters Others

Feeder length Rating Voltage

drops Sub-transmission
Sub-transmission
line numbers
line voltage and
Pole apperance, Number Power numbers
construction, losses Number of customers
design, and its affected by outages
Tree treming
joint Adjacent extent
substation and System maintenance
Feeder loading
feeders voltage procedure
Equipment
levels
costs
Company
policy
The Influence of the Voltage Levels on
Primary Distribution Feeder (Cont’d)
 If a certain load is assumed and a certain length of the
line is given, the most economical voltage can be
determined.
 The main considerations would be percentage voltage
regulation, conductor size, and percentage-power loss.

Comparison of % power loss and voltage drop at different

voltages (compared to that at 2200V)
 Area Coverage Principle For Single
Load Feeder
 For a given percent voltage drop, the feeder length and the loading are
direct function of the feeder voltage level. This relation is known as
“The area coverage principle”.
 Primary Distribution Feeder Loading

The primary feeder loading is defined as the

feeder loading during the peak loads at the
substation terminals. The factors affecting
the primary feeders are:
– The loading design
– The feeder routing
– The feeder numbers
– The feeder conductor size
 Primary Feeder Loading Design

Primary feeder loading design

Load Substation Feeder & system requirements

Density Capacity
Service Service quality
continuity
Location
Nature Emergency
Voltage level
reserve capacity
Growth
rate
Service reliability Voltage regulation

Construction cost and type Company policy

 Primary Feeder Routing Decision

Primary feeder routing decision

Load Others

Density Growth rate Feeder type Voltage drop

Development patteren Physical barriers Total cost

 Primary Feeder Number Design

Primary feeder number decision

Feeder Others

Length Limitations Voltage level Voltage drop

Size Substation capacity Load density

Primary Feeder Conductor Size Selection

Primary feeder conductor size selection

Load Rating Others

Growth rate Voltage drop

Transformer Conductor

Total cost

Power losses
 Tie Lines
 Tie line is a line connecting two supply systems (substations) for the
emergency situation to feed one system from the other.

 Disconnect switches are installed at the tie feeder to perform the

required power restoration and load transfer.

 Tie lines service the areas they pass through and have two main
functions:
– Provide an emergency service from the adjacent feeders due to a system feeder
outage.
– Provide an emergency service from the adjacent substations. Therefore, they
eliminate the need for a backup supply at every substation.

 The location of the disconnect switch has to be calculated based on the

following factors:
– The flexibility of the system operation based on the physical circuit arrangement.
– The load size and nature.
– The balance of the loads between the disconnect switches.
 Radial Primary Distribution
System Design (Overhead Primaries)
 The laterals (three single-phase with open wye-ground or
three-phase) are tapped off the main feeder and each lateral
can serve up to 6 blocks (5760 ft). The laterals are connected
to the main feeder through sectionalizing fuses.
 Advantage:
– Relatively low cost.
– Easy to inspected and
hence they are easy to
maintain and repair
since they are visible.
 Radial Primary Distribution
System Design (Underground Cables)
 The underground cables cost 1.25-10 times the
overhead system.
 They have, however, many benefits such as:
1. Weather exposure (snow, lightning and storms) and
accidents don’t cause nearly many outages as much as
overhead lines.
2. Underground system doesn’t need tree trimming, line
washing and other maintenance issues that are required
for overhead lines.
3. Underground system prevents unattractive aesthetic
exposure.
 Underground Residential Distribution
Cables
 It is composed of a two-way feeder that has four overhead
main feeders, two substations supplied from the same sub-
transmission line and residential underground cables
solid grounded
single-phase laterals
neutral
N.O.

Overhead main 1 Overhead main 2

Overhead main 4
Overhead main 3

10 blocks (3,300 ft)

12 blocks (11,520 ft)

 Economic Conductor Size
 Feeder design starts with determining the
conductor size from the following data:
a) Primary voltage
b) Conductor km-kVA (thermal limit)
c) Conductor initial installation cost/km
d) Annual loss factor
e) Present value (Pv) factor
f) Annual O&M cost
g) Annual losses cost
h) Present value of above (f) + (g)
i) Total present value cost (Pv) = (h) + (c)
j) Maximum load current including growth for the
next 5-10 year .
 Economic Conductor Size (Cont.)
 Knowing the maximum load and its total present value for
declared service life in design code (say 30 years), the
curves for different conductor sizes can be drawn as
standards.
 The conductor which gives the lowest Pv should be selected.
 Economic Conductor Size (Cont.)
 The larger conductor size has a shorter economic reach
(electrical distance)
 Losses are the function of resistance which varies roughly in
inverse proportion to the conductor ampere capacity (size).
 Voltage drop is a function of impedance (R and X).
Reactance mostly depends on line phase spacing.
 As a thumb rule, doubling a line's ampere capacity will cut
the resistance by half but will reduce the reactance by only
10 per cent.
 Lines having high X/R ratios have higher voltage drops for
the corresponding economic loading and thus have a shorter
load reach than the smaller conductor size.
 It is always recommended to make an economic selection.
 Part II
Secondary Distribution
Systems
 Outlines
 Introduction
 Secondary Distribution System Voltage Levels
 Design Consideration of Secondary Distribution System
 Secondary Distribution System Configuration
– Separate Service System.
– Radial System.
– Secondary-Bank System.
– Spot Network.
– Secondary-Network System.
 Secondary Distribution System Design
– Secondary Mains.
– Customer Service.
– Customer Meters.
– Limiters.
– Network Protector (NP).
– High-voltage switch.
 Introduction
 It is the part of the electric utility system which is
between the primary system and the customer service
entrances.
 Secondary distribution systems include:
– Step down distribution transformers.
– Secondary circuits
– Consumer services and consumer energy meter
 The secondary circuit can take the form of overhead or
underground connections. The customer service drop is
constituted of a single- or three-phase conductor(s) and
ends at the customers’ entrance service area.
 Generally, the secondary distribution systems are single
phase systems for areas of residential loads and three
phase for areas of industrial or commercial loads.

20-Mar-21 44
 Secondary Distribution System
Voltage Levels
 For residential loads: single-phase three-wires are used with a voltage of
120/240 V. The 120 V is used for the lighting and the 240 V for the large
household appliances.

 For residential and commercial loads with high load densities: a grid
secondary network uses single-phase three-wire 120/208Y V. The 120 V
is used for lighting and the 208 V for the large household appliances.

 For spot networks in high-density high-rise residential buildings, for

commercial loads and for industrial loads: the voltages used are 277/480Y
V. The distribution network is made of four-wire three-phase system,
where the 277 V voltage level is used for the fluorescent lightning and the
single-phase loads.
 Design Consideration of Secondary
Distribution System
 The secondary distribution system is made of 1-Φ for residential
applications and 3-Φ for commercial and industrial applications and it can
be fed from:
1) Small number of large size distribution transformers suitable for high-load
density areas
2) Large number of small size distribution transformers: suitable for low-load
density areas (cost effective - high voltage drop and power losses)

 In North America, the common distribution transformers rating is 25 kVA

with a multiple single-phase service drops, normally feeding from 4 to 7
customers.
 In Europe, distribution transformers rating is 500 kVA with a multiple
three-phase secondary main and service drops that feed about 100
customers.

 To minimize the cost and the secondary line length, distribution

transformers should be located close to the load centers.
 Design Consideration of Secondary
Distribution System, cont’d

 The distribution system engineers are normally

concerned with the following issues:
– The investment economics.
– The transformer and secondary circuit copper losses.
– The voltage drops and flickers.
 Secondary Distribution System
Configuration
Separate Service System

 In this system each customer is served by a separate

transformer and secondary connection. This configuration is
rarely applied, as it is used only for light load rural areas
 Secondary Distribution System
Configuration (Cont’d)
Radial System Distribution substation low voltage side
The main supplied from one
transformer to feed a group
of customers.
It is the most common type

of secondary system used in 3 Primary main
distribution system.
Lateral fuse cutout 
Radial systems are simple 1 Laterals
to operate and they are the Transformer fuse
least expensive systems. Distribution transformer
120/240 V Secondary main

4-20 Customers
 Secondary Distribution System
Configuration (Cont’d)
Secondary-Bank System
 The banking of distribution transformer, that is,
parallel connection of the secondary sides for two or
more distribution transformers.
 Banking of transformers is practiced in residential and
light commercial areas.
 This can be achieved by different configurations as
shown in the coming few slides.
 Secondary Distribution System
Configuration (Cont’d)
Secondary-Bank System

Distribution substation low voltage side

Primary fuse

Banked secondary mains

Secondary fuse
 Secondary Distribution System
Configuration (Cont’d)
Secondary-Bank System

Distribution substation low voltage side

Primary fuse

Banked secondary mains

Secondary fuses
 Secondary Distribution System
Configuration (Cont’d)
Secondary-Bank System

Distribution substation low voltage side

Primary fuse

Secondary fuse
Banked secondary mains
 Secondary Distribution System
Configuration (Cont’d)
Secondary-Bank System

Distribution substation low voltage side

Primary fuse

Secondary breaker
Banked secondary mains
 Secondary Distribution System
Configuration (Cont’d)
Secondary-Bank System
 Advantages:
– Improving the system voltage regulation, reliability and
supply continuity.
– Providing parallel feeding paths for motor-starting
currents. Thus, reducing the system voltage drops and light
flickers caused by motor starting.
– Flexibility for meeting the load growth by sharing loads
between transformers without the need for increasing
certain transformers’ capacity.

20-Mar-21 55
 Secondary Distribution System
Configuration (Cont’d)
Secondary-Bank System
 Disadvantages:
– To identify the blown fuse careful requirements are
necessary.
– Difficult secondary fuse coordination.
– Difficulty in performing transformer load management.
This is due to the fact that, the design requires equal
loading for each transformer in the secondary-banking
configuration.
 Secondary Distribution System
Configuration (Cont’d)
Spot Network
 It is similar to the secondary-
banking system, but with more
than one transformer connected
in parallel.
 They are fed from more than
one feeder to provide the
highest reliability in industrial,
high-loading density areas and
large commercial applications.
 Secondary Distribution System
Configuration (Cont’d)
Secondary-Network System

 The secondary-network system consists of a high interconnected

secondary grid routed under each high load density area in underground
duct banks and manholes.

 The purpose of this configuration is to provide reliable and continuous

power, irrespective of how much it costs.

 This grid is fed from a minimum of two primary feeders that supply
distribution transformers to increase the system’s reliability.
 Secondary Distribution System Design
Secondary Mains
 All secondary mains wires are three-phase four-wire wye-connected
conductors with solidly grounded neutrals.
 They are either overhead or underground.
– For underground, these mains are rubber insulated single-conductor
installed in duct banks and manholes.
– For overhead secondary networks, these mains are open-wire with
weatherproof conductors.
– For overhead grid-secondary mains, the minimum conductor size should
be 60% of the largest grid transformer full-load current.
– For underground secondary mains this percentage is higher than 60%.

 The common secondary mains cable sizes are 250 kcmil (4/0), 350
kcmil and 500 kcmil.

 The choice of the cables sizes is mainly affected by:

– The voltage-drop criteria: the maximum drop is 3% for urban areas and
6% for ruler areas.
– The faults burning clear: In case of short circuit the secondary network is
designed to burn itself clear without the operation of any sectionalizing
fuses or overhead protection.
Secondary Distribution System Design
Customer Service [3]
The disconnection boxes provide
connection to customers and
possibility for fuses usage at each
outgoing cables.
cheap but does not provide individual
protection as in (i).

used for far and remote

customer or individual large
consumer

represents the fixed underground joint

which are considered to be cheaper than
disconnection boxes but does not
provide individual protection as in (i).

(vi) and (vii) are modified

configuration of (v).

Several arrangements for connecting houses to the underground cable system

Secondary Distribution System Design
Customer Meters

 Customer meters are used to measure the customer energy

consumption to determine the revenue for the electric utilities.

 For residential customers, they are billed for kWh consumed.

 For commercial and industrial applications, they are billed for

their power consumption, demand charges and power factor
penalties.
– The demand charges are the amount of charges to have a certain
amount of power measured in kW or kVA.
– Power factor charge are the charges paid as a penalty for providing
kVAR to serve motor load and other loads that require reactive
power.
 Secondary Distribution System Design
Limiters
 The secondary-network main fault protection mechanism is based on the
voltage used as follows:
– For 120/280 V networks, the fault arc can not continue and clear out.
– For 480 V networks, the fault arc can not clear out. Therefore, service
interruption and manholes fire may occur. Therefore current limiters are
installed at secondary-network junctions.
 To have fast clearing of the fault, limiters are used

 Limiter is a high capacity fuse with a restricted copper section.

 It is installed in each secondary main phase conductor at each junction
point.
 The choice of implementing a limiter is based on:
– The minimum system service interruption.
– The limiters cost has to be less than the cost of cable damage.
 The limiter has time current characteristics that are designed to pass the
normal load current. But it operates and clears a faulted main section
before cable insulation breaks down and become permanently damaged.
 Limiter Time-current & Underground Insulation-
Damage Characteristics [5]

 The current-time characteristics of

the limiter have to be coordinated
with:
– The current-time characteristics of
the network protector fuses.
– The cable’s insulation damage
characteristics
Secondary Distribution System Design
Network Protector (NP)

 As shown in the Figure, the NP

is connected to the secondary of
the distribution transformer.
 The NP consists of an air circuit
breaker with a closing and
tripping mechanism.
 A fuse is connected to provide a
backup protection in case the
breaker did not operate during a
fault.
 Secondary Distribution System Design
Network Protector (NP) (Cont’d)
 NP functions are:
– Automatic isolation in case of fault on distribution
transformer or primary feeder.
– Automatic closure under predetermined conditions, that
is, when the primary feeder voltage magnitude and
phase relation with respect to the network voltage are
correct.
– To provide protection against the reverse power flow in
some feeders connected to separate sources.
 Network Protector

20-Mar-21 66
 Secondary Distribution System Design
Network Protector (NP) (Cont’d)

Fault location Substation CB NP breaker NP fuse Limiter

Secondary main No No No Yes

Low-voltage distribution
No No Yes Yes
transformer

Distribution transformer
Trip Trip No No
internal fault

Primary feeder Trip Trip

No No

20-Mar-21 67
 Secondary Distribution System Design
High-Voltage Switch
 It is a three-position switch located at the high-voltage
side of the network transformer.

 The switch is manually operated and it is not for current

interruption.

 The steps for disconnecting the distribution transformer

are:
– Open the primary-feeder breaker at the substation.
– De-energize the network transformer to operate the switch due to the
existence of the electric interlock system.
– Open the switch to isolate the network unit.
– Close the primary-feeder breaker to serve the rest of the network.

20-Mar-21 68
Secondary Distribution System Design
High-Voltage Switch (Cont’d)
Primary feeder

High-voltage switch
1 2 3

Interlock
P Distribution transformer

Current & Potential transformer

NP
NP fuse

Mains
Limiter

Position (1) is for grounding the primary feeder;

Position (2) is for normal operation, and
Psition (3) is for disconnecting the network transformer
 References

[1] R. E. Brown, "Electric Power Distribution Reliability," Marcel Dekker, New

York, 2002.

[2] Beauty, H. Wayne, Electric power distribution systems: a non-technical guide,

Tulsa, Okla.: PennWell, 1998.

[3] T. Gőnen, Electric Power Distribution System Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New

York, 1986.

[4] Westinghouse Electric Corporation: Electric Utility Engineering Reference

Book- Distribution Systems, vol. 3, East Pittsburgh, Pa., 1965.

[5] C. Morrison, "A linear approach to the problem of planning new feeder points
into a distribution system," AIEE Trans., pt. III (PAS), Dec. 1963, pp. 819-832.