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CHAPTER 6

Priority Queues (Heaps)

6.1 Yes. When an element is inserted, we compare it to the current minimum and change the minimum if the new

element is smaller. deleteMin operations are expensive in this scheme.

6.2

6.3 The result of three deleteMins, starting with both of the heaps in Exercise 6.2, is as follows:

6.4 (a) 4N

(b) O(N2)

(c) O(N4.1)

(d) O(2N)

6.5 public void insert( AnyType x )

{
if ( currentSize = = array.length - 1 )
enlargeArray( array.length * 2 + 1 );

©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
 // Percolate up
int hole = + + currentSize;
for ( ; hole > 1 && x.compareTo( array[ hole / 2 ] ) < 0; hole
/ = 2)
array[ hole ] = array[ hole/2 ];
array[ 0 ] = array[ hole ] = x;
}

6.6 225. To see this, start with i = 1 and position at the root. Follow the path toward the last node, doubling i

when taking a left child, and doubling i and adding one when taking a right child.

6.7 (a) We show that H(N), which is the sum of the heights of nodes in a complete binary tree of N nodes, is

N − b(N), where b(N) is the number of ones in the binary representation of N. Observe that for N = 0 and

N = 1, the claim is true. Assume that it is true for values of k up to and including N − 1. Suppose the left and

right subtrees have L and R nodes, respectively. Since the root has height  log N  , we have

H (N ) = log N  + H (L) + H (R )
= log N  + L − b(L) + R − b(R)
= N − 1 + (  Log N  − b(L) − b(R) )

The second line follows from the inductive hypothesis, and the third follows because L + R = N − 1. Now the

last node in the tree is in either the left subtree or the right subtree. If it is in the left subtree, then the right

subtree is a perfect tree, and b(R) = log N  − 1 . Further, the binary representation of N and L are identical,

with the exception that the leading 10 in N becomes 1 in L. (For instance, if N = 37 = 100101, L = 10101.) It

is clear that the second digit of N must be zero if the last node is in the left subtree. Thus in this case,

b(L) = b(N), and

H(N) = N − b(N)

If the last node is in the right subtree, then b(L) =  log N  . The binary representation of R is identical to

N, except that the leading 1 is not present. (For instance, if N = 27 = 101011, L = 01011.) Thus

b(R) = b(N) − 1, and again

H(N) = N − b(N)

(b) Run a single-elimination tournament among eight elements. This requires seven comparisons and

generates ordering information indicated by the binomial tree shown here.

©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
 The eighth comparison is between b and c. If c is less than b, then b is made a child of c. Otherwise, both

c and d are made children of b.

(c) A recursive strategy is used. Assume that N = 2k. A binomial tree is built for the N elements as in part (b).

The largest subtree of the root is then recursively converted into a binary heap of 2 k − 1 elements. The last

element in the heap (which is the only one on an extra level) is then inserted into the binomial queue

consisting of the remaining binomial trees, thus forming another binomial tree of 2 k − 1 elements. At that

point, the root has a subtree that is a heap of 2 k − 1 − 1 elements and another subtree that is a binomial tree of

2k−1 elements. Recursively convert that subtree into a heap; now the whole structure is a binary heap. The

running time for N = 2k satisfies T(N) = 2T(N/2) + log N. The base case is T(8) = 8.

6.9 Let D1, D2, . . . ,Dk be random variables representing the depth of the smallest, second smallest, and kth

smallest elements, respectively. We are interested in calculating E(Dk). In what follows, we assume that the

heap size N is one less than a power of two (that is, the bottom level is completely filled) but sufficiently

large so that terms bounded by O(1/N) are negligible. Without loss of generality, we may assume that the kth

smallest element is in the left subheap of the root. Let pj, k be the probability that this element is the jth

smallest element in the subheap.

Lemma.

k −1
For k > 1, E (Dk ) =  p j ,k (E (D j ) + 1) .
j =1

Proof.

An element that is at depth d in the left subheap is at depth d + 1 in the entire subheap. Since

E(Dj + 1) = E(Dj) + 1, the theorem follows.

©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
 Since by assumption, the bottom level of the heap is full, each of second, third, . . . , k − 1th smallest

elements are in the left subheap with probability of 0.5. (Technically, the probability should be half − 1/(N −

1) of being in the right subheap and half + 1/(N − 1) of being in the left, since we have already placed the kth

smallest in the right. Recall that we have assumed that terms of size O(1/N) can be ignored.) Thus

1  k − 2
p j ,k = pk − j ,k = k −2  
2  j −1 

Theorem.

E(Dk)  log k.

Proof.

The proof is by induction. The theorem clearly holds for k = 1 and k = 2. We then show that it holds for

arbitrary k > 2 on the assumption that it holds for all smaller k. Now, by the inductive hypothesis, for any

1  j  k − 1,

E (D j ) + E (Dk − j )  log j + log k − j

Since f(x) = log x is convex for x > 0,

log j + log k − j  2 log ( k 2 )

Thus

E (D j ) + E (Dk − j )  log( k 2 ) + log ( k 2 )

Furthermore, since pj, k = pk − j, k,

p j ,k E (D j ) + pk − j ,k E (Dk − j )  p j ,k log ( k 2 ) + pk − j ,k log ( k 2 )

From the lemma,

k −1
E (Dk ) =  p j , k (E (D j ) + 1)
j =1
k −1
=1+  p j, k E(D j )
j =1

Thus

©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
 k −1
E ( Dk )  1 +  p j , k log ( k 2)
j =1
k −1
 1 + log ( k 2)  p j , k
j =1

 1 + log ( k 2)
 log k

completing the proof.

It can also be shown that asymptotically, E(Dk)  log(k − 1) − 0.273548.

6.10 (a) Perform a preorder traversal of the heap.

(b) Works for leftist and skew heaps. The running time is O(Kd) for d-heaps.

6.12 Simulations show that the linear time algorithm is the faster, not only on worst-case inputs, but also on

random data.

6.13 (a) If the heap is organized as a (min) heap, then starting at the hole at the root, find a path down to a leaf by

taking the minimum child. The requires roughly log N comparisons. To find the correct place where to move

the hole, perform a binary search on the log N elements. This takes O(log log N) comparisons.

(b) Find a path of minimum children, stopping after log N − log log N levels. At this point, it is easy to

determine if the hole should be placed above or below the stopping point. If it goes below, then continue

finding the path, but perform the binary search on only the last log log N elements on the path, for a total of

log N + log log log N comparisons. Otherwise, perform a binary search on the first log N − log log N

elements. The binary search takes at most log log N comparisons, and the path finding took only log N − log

log N, so the total in this case is log N. So the worst case is the first case.

(c) The bound can be improved to log N + log*N + O(1), where log*N is the inverse Ackerman function (see

Chapter 8). This bound can be found in reference [17].

6.14 The parent is at position (i + d − 2) d  . The children are in positions (i − 1)d + 2, . . . , id + 1.

6.15 (a) O((M + d N) logd N).

(b) O((M + N) log N).

(c) O(M + N2).

(d) d = max(2, M/N). (See the related discussion at the end of Section 11.4.)

©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
6.16 Starting from the second most signficant digit in i, and going toward the least significant digit, branch left for

0s, and right for 1s.

6.17 (a) Place negative infinity as a root with the two heaps as subtrees. Then do a deleteMin.

(b) Place negative infinity as a root with the larger heap as the left subheap, and the smaller heap as the right

subheap. Then do a deleteMin.

(c) SKETCH: Split the larger subheap into smaller heaps as follows: on the left-most path, remove two

subheaps of height r − 1, then one of height r, r + 1, and so one, until l − 2. Then merge the trees, going

smaller to higher, using the results of parts (a) and (b), with the extra nodes on the left path substituting for

the insertion of infinity, and subsequent deleteMin.

6.19

6.20

6.21 This theorem is true, and the proof is very much along the same lines as Exercise 4.20.

6.22 If elements are inserted in decreasing order, a leftist heap consisting of a chain of left children is formed. This

is the best because the right path length is minimized.

6.23 (a) If a decreaseKey is performed on a node that is very deep (very left), the time to percolate up would be

prohibitive. Thus the obvious solution doesn’t work. However, we can still do the operation efficiently by a

combination of remove and insert. To remove an arbitrary node x in the heap, replace x by the merge of its

left and right subheaps. This might create an imbalance for nodes on the path from x’s parent to the root that

©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
 would need to be fixed by a child swap. However, it is easy to show that at most logN nodes can be affected,

preserving the time bound.

This is discussed in Chapter 11.

6.24 Lazy deletion in leftist heaps is discussed in the paper by Cheriton and Tarjan [10]. The general idea is that if

the root is marked deleted, then a preorder traversal of the heap is formed, and the frontier of marked nodes is

removed, leaving a collection of heaps. These can be merged two at a time by placing all the heaps on a

queue, removing two, merging them, and placing the result at the end of the queue, terminating when only

one heap remains.

6.25 (a) The standard way to do this is to divide the work into passes. A new pass begins when the first element

reappears in a heap that is dequeued. The first pass takes roughly 2*1*(N/2) time units because there are N/2

merges of trees with one node each on the right path. The next pass takes 2*2*(N/4) time units because of the

roughly N/4 merges of trees with no more than two nodes on the right path. The third pass takes 2*3*(N/8)

time units, and so on. The sum converges to 4N.

(b) It generates heaps that are more leftist.

6.26

6.27

6.28 This claim is also true, and the proof is similar in spirit to Exercise 4.20 or 6.21.

©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
6.29 Yes. All the single operation estimates in Exercise 6.25 become amortized instead of worst-case, but by the

definition of amortized analysis, the sum of these estimates is a worst-case bound for the sequence.

6.30 Clearly the claim is true for k = 1. Suppose it is true for all values i = 1, 2, . . . , k. A Bk + 1 tree is formed by

attaching a Bk tree to the root of a Bk tree. Thus by induction, it contains a B0 through Bk − 1 tree, as well as the

newly attached Bk tree, proving the claim.

6.31 Proof is by induction. Clearly the claim is true for k = 1. Assume true for all values i = 1, 2, . . . ,k. A Bk + 1

k 
tree is formed by attaching a Bk tree to the original Bk tree. The original thus had   nodes at depth d. The
d 

 k 
attached tree had   nodes at depth d−1, which are now at depth d. Adding these two terms and using a
 d − 1

well-known formula establishes the theorem.

6.32

6.33 This is established in Chapter 11.

6.38 Don’t keep the key values in the heap, but keep only the difference between the value of the key in a node

and the value of the parent’s key.

6.39 O(N + k log N) is a better bound than O(N log k). The first bound is O(N) if k = O(N/log N). The second

bound is more than this as soon as k grows faster than a constant. For the other values (N/log N) = k = (N),

the first bound is better. When k = (N), the bounds are identical.

©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
Other documents randomly have
different content
 water; then cover the glass over for a few minutes, and
hydrogen gas will be given off.
Exp. If a flame be put into the glass, an explosion will be
made.
If the experiment be tried in a phial, which has a piece of
tobacco-pipe run through the cork; and a light held a few
moments to the top of the pipe, a flame will be made.
If a balloon be held over the phial, (so that the gas can
inflate it,) the balloon will ascend in a very few minutes.

Q. What is oxygen?

A. A gas, much heavier than hydrogen; which gives brilliancy to

flame, and is essential to animal life.[8]
[8] Oxygen gas is much more troublesome to make than
hydrogen. The cheapest plan is to put a few ounces of
manganese (called the black oxide of manganese) into an
iron bottle, furnished with a bent tube; set the bottle on a
fire till it becomes red hot, and put the end of the tube into a
pan of water. In a few minutes, bubbles will rise through the
water; these bubbles are oxygen gas.
These bubbles may be collected thus:—Fill a common bottle
with water; hold it topsy-turvy over the bubbles which rise
through the pan, but be sure the mouth of the bottle be held
in the water. As the bubbles rise into the bottle, the water
will run out; and when all the water has run out, the bottle is
full of gas. Cork the bottle while the mouth remains under
water; set the bottle on its base; cover the cork with lard or
wax, and the gas will keep till it be wanted.
N. B. The quickest way of making oxygen gas, is to rub
together in a mortar half an ounce of oxide of copper, and
half an ounce of chlorate of potassa. Put the mixture into a
common oil flask, furnished with a cork which has a bent
tube thrust through it. Heat the bottom of the flask over a
 candle or lamp; and when the mixture is red hot, oxygen gas
will be given off. Note—the tube must be immersed in a pan
of water, and the gas collected as before.
(Chlorate of potassa may be bought at any chemist’s; and
oxide of copper may be procured by heating a sheet of
copper red hot, and when cool, striking it with a hammer:
the scales that peel off, are oxide of copper.)
Exp. Put a piece of red hot charcoal, (fixed to a bit of wire,)
into your bottle of oxygen gas; and it will throw out most
dazzling sparks of light.
Blow a candle out; and while the wick is still red, hold the
candle (by a piece of wire,) in the bottle of oxygen gas; the
wick will instantly ignite, and burn brilliantly.
(Burning sulphur emits a blue flame, when immersed in
oxygen gas.)

Q. What is nitrogen?

A. Nitrogen is another invisible gas. It will not burn, like

hydrogen; and an animal cannot live in it: it abounds in animal
and vegetable substances, and is the chief ingredient of the
common air.[9]
[9] Nitrogen gas may easily be obtained thus:—Put a piece of
burning phosphorus on a little stand, in a plate of water; and
cover a bell glass over. (Be sure the edge of the glass stands
in the water.) In a few minutes the air will be decomposed,
and nitrogen alone remain in the bell glass.
(N.B. The white fume which will arise and be absorbed by
the water in this experiment, is phosphoric acid; i. e.
phosphorus combined with oxygen of the air.)
Q. Why is there so much nitrogen in the air?
A. In order to dilute the oxygen. If the oxygen were not thus
diluted, fires would burn out, and life would be exhausted too
quickly.

Q. What three elements are necessary to produce combustion?

A. Hydrogen gas, carbon, and oxygen gas; the two former in

the fuel, and the last in the air which surrounds the fuel.

Q. What causes the combustion of the fuel?

A. The hydrogen gas of the fuel being set free, and excited by
a piece of lighted paper, instantly unites with the oxygen of the
air, and makes a yellow flame: this flame heats the carbon of
the fuel, which also unites with the oxygen of the air, and
produces carbonic acid gas.

Q. What is carbonic acid gas?

A. Only carbon (or charcoal) combined with oxygen gas.
Q. Why does fire produce heat?

A. 1st—By liberating latent heat from the air and fuel: and
2ndly—By throwing into rapid motion the atoms of matter.

Q. How is latent heat liberated by combustion?

A. When the oxygen of the air combines with the hydrogen of

the fuel, the two gases condense into water; and latent heat is
squeezed out, as water from a sponge.

Q. How are the atoms of matter disturbed by combustion?

A. 1st—When hydrogen of fuel and oxygen of air condense into

water, a vacuum is made; and the air is disturbed, as a pond
would be, if a pail of water were taken out of it: and
2ndly—When the carbon of fuel and oxygen of air expand into
carbonic acid gas, the air is again disturbed, as it would be by
the explosion of gunpowder.

Q. How does fire condense hydrogen and oxygen into water?

A. The hydrogen of fuel and oxygen of air (liberated by
combustion) combining together, condense into water.

Q. How does fire expand carbon into carbonic acid gas?

A. The carbon of fuel and oxygen of air (combining together in

combustion) expand into a gas, called carbonic acid.

Q. Why is a fire (after it has been long burning) red hot?

A. When coals are heated throughout, the carbon is so

completely mixed with the oxygen of the air, that the whole
surface is in a state of combustion, and therefore red hot.

Q. In a blazing fire, why is the upper surface of the coals black,

and the lower surface red?
A. Carbon (being very solid) requires a great degree of heat to
make it unite with the oxygen of the air. When fresh coals are
put on, their under surface is heated before the upper surface;
and one is red (or in a state of combustion), while the other is
black.
Q. Which burns the quicker, a blazing fire, or a red hot one?
A. A blazing fire burns out the fuel quickest.

Q. Why do blazing coals burn quicker than red hot ones?

A. In red hot coals, only the mere surface is in a state of
combustion, because the carbon is solid; but in a blazing fire,
(where the gases are escaping), the whole volume of the coal
throughout is in a state of decomposition.

Q. What is smoke?

A. Unconsumed parts of fuel (principally carbon), separated

from the solid mass, and carried up the chimney by the current
of hot air.

Q. Why is there more smoke when coals are fresh added, than
when they are red hot?
A. Carbon (being solid), requires a great degree of heat to
make it unite with oxygen, (or, in other words, to bring it into a
state of perfect combustion): when coals are fresh laid on,
more carbon is separated than can be reduced to combustion;
and so it flies off in smoke.

Q. Why is there so little smoke with a red hot fire?

A. When a fire is red hot, the entire surface of the coals is in a

state of combustion; so a very little flies off unconsumed, as
smoke.

Q. Why are there dark and bright spots in a clear cinder fire?

A. Because the intensity of the combustion is greater in some

parts of the fire, than it is in others.

Q. Why is the intensity of the combustion so unequal?

A. Because the air flies to the fire in various and unequal
currents.

Q. Why do we see all sorts of grotesque figures in hot coals?

A. Because the intensity of combustion is so unequal, (owing to

the gusty manner in which the air flies to the fuel; and the
various shades of red, yellow, and white heat mingling with the
black of the unburnt coal), produce strange and fanciful
resemblances.

Q. Why does paper burn more readily than wood?

A. Merely because it is of a more fragile texture; and, therefore,
its component parts are more easily heated.

Q. Why does wood burn more readily than coal?

A. Because it is not so solid; and, therefore, its elemental parts
are more easily separated, and made hot.

Q. When a fire is lighted, why is paper laid at the bottom, against

the grate?
A. Because paper (in consequence of its fragile texture), so
very readily catches fire.

Q. Why is wood laid on the top of the paper?

A. Because wood, (being more substantial), burns longer than
paper; and, therefore, affords a longer contact of flame to heat
the coals.

Q. Why would not paper do without wood?

A. Because paper burns out so rapidly, that it would not afford
sufficient contact of flame to heat the coals to combustion.

Q. Why would not wood do without shavings, straw, or paper?

A. Because wood is too substantial to be heated into
combustion, by the flame issuing from a mere match.

Q. Why would not the paper do as well, if placed on the top of

the coals?
A. As every blaze tends upwards, if the paper were placed on
the top of the fire, its blaze would afford no contact of flame to
fuel lying below.

Q. Why should coal be placed above the wood?

A. As every flame tends upwards, if the wood were above the
coal, the flame would not rise through the coal to heat it.

Q. Why is a fire kindled at the lowest bar of a grate?

A. As every flame tends upwards; when a flame is made at the
bottom of a fire, it ascends through the fuel and heats it:
whereas, if the fire were lighted from the top, the flame would
not come into contact with the fuel piled below.

Q. Why does coal make such excellent fuel?

A. Because it is so very hard and compact, that it burns away

very slowly.

Q. Why will cinders become red hot, quicker than coals?

A. Because they are more porous and less solid; and are,
therefore, sooner reduced to a state of combustion.

Q. Why will not iron cinders burn?

A. Iron cinders are cinders saturated with oxygen; they are
unfit for fuel, because they can imbibe no more oxygen, being
saturated already.

Q. Why are cinders lighter than coals?

A. Because their vapour, gases, and volatile parts, have been

driven off by previous combustion.

Q. Why will not stones do for fuel, as well as coals?

A. Because they contain no hydrogen (or inflammable gas) like

coals.

Q. Why will not wet kindling light a fire?

A. 1st—Because the moisture of the wet kindling prevents the
oxygen of the air from getting to the fuel to form it into
carbonic acid gas: and
2ndly—The heat of the fire is perpetually drawn off, by the
conversion of water into steam.
Q. Why does dry wood burn better than green?

A. 1st—Because no heat is carried away, by the conversion of

water into steam: and
2ndly—The pores of dry wood are filled with air, which supply
the fire with oxygen.

Q. Why do two pieces of wood burn better than one?

A. 1st—Because they help to entangle the heat of the passing

smoke, and throw it on the fuel: and
2ndly—They help to entangle the air that passes over the fire,
and create a kind of eddy or draught.

Q. Why does salt crackle when thrown into a fire?

A. Salt contains water; and the cracking of the salt is owing to

the sudden conversion of the water into steam.

Q. Why will not wood or paper burn, if they are steeped in a

solution of potash, phosphate of lime, or ammonia (hartshorn)?
A. Because any “al’kali” (such as potash) will arrest the
hydrogen (as it escapes from the fuel), and prevent its
combination with the oxygen of air.

Q. What is an al’kali?
A. The con’verse of an acid; as bitter is the con’verse of sweet,
or insipid the con’verse of pungent.

Q. Why does a jet of flame sometimes burst into the room

through the bars of a stove?

A. The iron bars conduct heat to the interior of some lump of

coal: and its volatile gas (bursting through the weakest part) is
kindled by the glowing coals over which it passes.

Q. Why is this jet sometimes of a greenish yellow colour?

A. When a lump of coals lies over the hot bars, or the coals
below it are not red hot, the gas which bursts from the lump
escapes unburnt, and is of a greenish colour.
Q. Why does the gas escape unburnt?

A. Because neither the bars nor coals (over which it passes) are
red-hot.

Q. Why does a bluish flame sometimes flicker on the surface of

hot cinders?
A. Gas from the hot coals at the bottom of the grate mixing
with the carbon of the coals above, produces an inflammable
gas (called carbonic oxide), which burns with a blue flame.

Q. Why is the flame of a good fire yellow?

A. Because both the hydrogen and carbon of the fuel are in a

state of perfect combustion. It is the white heat of the carbon,
which gives the pale yellow tinge to the flaming hydrogen.

Q. What is light?

A. Rapid undulations of a fluid called ether, striking on the eye.

Q. How does combustion make these undulations of light?

A. The atoms of matter (set in motion by heat) striking against

this ether, produce undulations in it; as a stone thrown into a
stream, would produce undulations in the water.

Q. How can undulations of ether produce light?

A. As sound is produced by undulations of air striking on the

ear; so light is produced by undulations of ether striking on the
eye.

Q. What is ether?

A. A very subtile fluid, which pervades and surrounds every

thing we see.

Q. Mention a simple experiment to prove that light is produced

by rapid motion.
A. When a fiddle-string is jerked suddenly, its rapid vibration
produces a grey light; and when a carriage wheel revolves very
quickly, it sends forth a similar light.
Q. Does heat always produce light?

A. No: the heat of a stack of hay, or reeking dunghill, though

very great, is not sufficient to produce light.

Q. Why is a yellow flame brighter than a red hot coal?

A. Because yellow rays always produce the greatest amount of

light; though red rays produce the greatest amount of heat.

Q. Why is the light of a fire more intense sometimes than at

others?
A. The intensity of fire-light depends upon the whiteness to
which the carbon is reduced, by combustion. If the carbon be
white hot, its combustion is perfect, and the light intense; if
not, the light is obscured by smoke.

Q. Why will not cinders blaze, as well as fresh coals?

A. The flame of coals is made chiefly by hydrogen gas. As soon
as this gas is consumed, the hot cinders produce only an
invisible gas, called carbonic acid.
Q. Where does the hydrogen gas of a fire come from?
A. The fuel is decomposed (by combustion) into its simple
elements, carbon and hydrogen gas. (see p. 33)

Q. Why does not a fire blaze on a frosty night, so long as it does

upon another night?
A. The air (being very cold) rushes to the fire so rapidly, that
the coals burn out faster, and the inflammable gas is sooner
consumed.

Q. Why does a fire burn clearest on a frosty night?

A. Because the volatile gases are quickly consumed; and the
solid carbon plentifully supplied with air, to make it burn bright
and intensely.

Q. Why does a fire burn more intensely in winter than in summer

time?
A. Because the air is colder in winter, than in summer-time.
Q. How does the coldness of the air increase the heat of a fire?
A. For two reasons: 1st—Because cold air being more
condensed than hot air, contains a greater body: and
2ndly—Cold air rushes more quickly to the fire, and supplies
more oxygen.

Q. Why does the sun, shining on a fire, make it dull, and often
put it out?
A. 1st—When the sun shines, the air is rarefied; and, therefore,
flows more slowly to the fire.
2ndly—As the air is rarefied, even that which reaches the fire,
affords less nourishment.

Q. Why does the air flow to the fire more tardily for being
rarefied?

A. The greater the contrast (between the external air, and that
which has been heated by the fire) the more rapid will be the
current of air towards that fire.
Q. Why does rarefied air afford less nourishment to fire, than cold
air?
A. Because it is spread out, (like a piece of gold beaten into
leaf); and as a square inch of gold leaf will not contain so much
gold as a square inch of bullion—so, a square inch of rarefied
air has less body, than a square inch of cold air.

Q. Why does a fire burn more fiercely in the open air?

A. 1st—Because the air out-of-doors is more dense, than the air

in-doors: and
2ndly—Because air is more freely supplied to a fire out-of-
doors.

Q. Why is the air out-of-doors more dense than that in-doors?

A. Because the circulation is more free; and as soon as any
portion has been rarefied, it instantly escapes, and is supplied
by colder currents.

Q. Why does not a fire burn so freely in a thaw, as in a frost?

A. During a thaw, the air is filled with vapour; and, both moves
too slowly, and is too much diluted to nourish the fire.

Q. Why does a fire burn so fiercely in windy weather?

A. In windy weather the air is rapidly changed, and affords
plentiful nourishment to the fire.

Q. Why do a pair of bellows get a fire up?

A. A pair of bellows, (like the wind), drives the air more rapidly
to the fire; and the plentiful supply of oxygen soon makes the
fire burn intensely.

Q. Why is a candle blown out by the breath, and not made more
intense, like a fire?
A. As the flame of a candle is confined to a very small wick, it is
severed from it by the breath; and (being unsupported) must
go out.

Q. Why is a smouldering wick sometimes rekindled by blowing it?

A. The breath carries the air to it with great rapidity; and the
oxygen of the air kindles the red hot wick, as it kindles charred
wood.

Q. Why is not the red hot wick kindled by the air around it,
without blowing it?
A. Because oxygen is not supplied with sufficient freedom,
unless it be blown to the wick.

Q. When is this experiment most likely to succeed?

A. In frosty weather; because the air contains more oxygen
then, being condensed by the cold.

Q. Why does a poker, laid across a dull fire, revive it?

A. For two reasons. 1st—Because the poker concentrates the
heat, and therefore increases it: and
2ndly—Because the poker arrests the air which passes over the
fire, and produces a draught.
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