Meteorology Worksheet

THE ATMOSPHERE
● Composed of:
○ 78% Nitrogen
○ 21% Oxygen
○ 1% Other gases
■ CO2, Argon, Water Vapour…

WATER VAPOUR
● Most important component of the air
● The gaseous phase of water
● It can change into water droplets or ice crystals under conditions of temperature and pressure
● It can only be found in the lower layers of the atmosphere

PROPERTIES OF THE ATMOSPHERE

1. Mobility
2. Expansion
a. The most important property since as the air rises, it expands, and cools which create meteorological conditions like clouds, fog, etc.
3. Compression

THE CYCLE OF THE PROPERTIES

1. Sunlight warms ground
2. Air in contact with ground warms and becomes low density air (Expansion)
3. Air Rises (Mobility)
4. Rising Air cools if you cool it enough (to the dew point) a cloud forms (Compression)

DIVISIONS OF THE ATMOSPHERE

1. Troposphere 2. Stratosphere 3. Mesosphere

a. Lowest level of the atmosphere a. Second level of the atmosphere a. Third level of the atmosphere
b. Pressure, density and temperature all decrease b. Pressure decreases with height whereas b. Temperature decreases with height
with height temperature increases with height c. Top layer is called the mesopause
c. Most of the “weather occurs here due to the c. Top layer is called the stratopause
presence of water vapour d. Contains ozone layer
d. Top layer is called the tropopause

4. Thermosphere 5. Exosphere
a. Fourth level of the atmosphere a. Fifth level of the atmosphere
b. Temperature increases with height b. Pressure decreases rapidly creating a vacuum
c. 500 km above the earth’s surface

ICAO STANDARD ATMOSPHERE

● Because pressure, temperature, and density change is not constant, we must create a standard for aeronautical purposes.
● Pilots flying North America follow these conditions:
1. The air is a perfectly dry gas
2. A mean sea level pressure of 29.92 “ Hg or 1013.25 hPa 3
3. A mean sea level temperature of 15°C
4. The rate of decrease of temperature with altitude is 1.98 °C per 1000 feet
WIND
● The horizontal movement of air caused by pressure differences
● Wind speed is measured in knots.

VEERING AND BACKING

1. Veering
a. During the day and with an increase of height, the wind veers clockwise and increases in velocity.
2. Backing
a. During the night and with a decrease in height, the wind backs counter-clockwise and decreases in velocity.

GUST & SQUALL

● Squall
○ A sudden increase in wind strength. It lasts much longer than a gust. May be caused by a fast moving cold front or thunderstorm.
● Gust
○ A brief rapid increase of wind speed and direction. It is caused by the unequal heating between the air and ground as well as mechanical
turbulence.

EDDIES
● Swirling vortices of air that are caused by the friction between the moving air mass and surface features (buildings, trees). In unstable air and strong winds,
the eddies become very strong. In stable air, they dissipate quickly.

WIND SHEAR
● A violent change in wind speed or direction that produces a “tearing” effect.
● Some speed changes have been measured to up to 80 knots.
● Severe wind shear hinders airplane performance as the change in the wind may be faster than the plane is able to accelerate or decelerate.

SURFACE WINDS
● Land Breeze
○ Occurs at night
○ Wind blows from the land (high pressure) towards the warm water (low pressure area)
● Sea Breeze
 ○ Occurs during the day
○ Wind blows from the sea (high pressure) towards the cold water (low pressure)

Anabatic and Katabatic Winds

● Katabatic Wind
○ At night, the slopes of hills cool
○ The air in contact with them becomes cooler and therefore denser and it blows down the slope
● Anabatic Wind
○ Slopes of hills not covered by snow will be warmed during the day
○ The air in contact with them becomes warmer and less dense and therefore up the slope
❖ Remembering Tool:
➢ “Ana goes up the hill to throw the Kat down.”

JET STREAM
● In the higher levels of the atmosphere (around 20,000 – 40,000 feet or more), there are narrow bands of exceedingly high speed winds.

CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE (CAT)

● Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) It is like a jet stream, however it has more bumpy and turbulent conditions and does not have any visual cues like clouds.
● It is almost impossible to forecast.
● It is caused when one body of air that moves at a particular speed meets another body of air at a particular speed.
● Usually occurs near the troposphere, specifically near the tropopause.

CLOUDS
1. Cumulus – forms in rising air currents and indicate unstable air.
2. Stratus – forms in horizontal layers and indicate stable air.
3. Nimbus –rain falls from these clouds
SKY CONDITIONS
● The sky is divided into 8 sections called oktas
○ Clear – no clouds
○ Few – 2 oktas
○ Scattered – 3 to 4 oktas
○ Broken – 5 to 7 oktas
○ Overcast – 8 oktas
❖ Remembering Tool:
➢ “Clear- No clouds; One Two, Skip a Few; Three Four, Scattered Floor; Five Six Seven, Broken Heaven; Eight Overcast.”

CLOUD HEIGHT
Families Height of Bases
● Low (Strato) Surface – 6500 ft
● Middle (Alto) 6500 ft – 23000 ft
● High (Cirro) 16500 ft – 45000 ft
● Vertical Development 1500 ft and above

CLOUD FORMATION
1. Relative Humidity
a. The ratio of water vapor present in the air compared to the amount the same volume could hold if it was saturated.
i. If a mass of air is heated and no new water vapour is added, the relative humidity decreases
ii. Relative humidity increases when cool air is added
2. Condensation nuclei
a. Water absorbent particles of solid matter – dust, salt, smoke
3. Cooling air is present

LIFTING AGENTS
 1. Orographic lift – air blowing against a 2. Frontal Lift – a mass of warm air is 3. Convection – Sun heats the earth
range of hills or mountains is forced forced aloft and rises over cold air. The unevenly, rising currents occur. This is
upwards into a region of lower pressure, rising warm air cools by expansion and convection. The air rises, expands and
expands and cools. clouds are formed. cools.

4. Convergence – Air piles up over a region 5. Turbulence – Air blowing on uneven

as at the center of low pressure area. The surfaces causing uneven heating allowing
excess air is forced to rise, expand and vertical currents to occur. Air moves
cool upward, expands and cools.

DEW POINT
● The temperature to which unsaturated air must be cooled at constant pressure to become saturated

PRESSURE
● The pressure of the atmosphere at any point is due to the weight of overlying air.
● “The force exerted by an air mass is created by the molecules that make it up and their size, motion, and number present in the air. The number of air
molecules above a surface determines air pressure.”
● Measured by mercury barometer
● “Hg” or hectopascal (hPa) → Unit of measure

HIGH PRESSURE VS. LOW PRESSURE

❖ Pressure always flows from HIGH to LOW

High Pressure Low Pressure

● Also known as an “Anti-cyclone” ● Also known as a “Cyclone”

● Flows clockwise and outward ● Flows counter -clockwise and inward
● Pressure is highest in the center ● Pressure is lowest in the center
● Expect fair weather ● Expect poor weather

GRAPHICAL FORECAST AREA

● Series of weather charts which depict the most probable meteorological condition expected to occur below 24 00ft
● Issued 4 times daily, every 6 hours and valid for 12 hours
● Heights in hundreds of feet ASL unless otherwise noted

DEFINITIONS
● Isobars​​ – lines that join, on a weather map, areas of equal barometric pressure.
● Isotherms​​ – lines that join, on a weather map, areas of equal temperature.
● Trough ​– U shaped area of low pressure with higher pressure on either side
● Ridge​​ – area of high pressure with low pressure on either side
● Col​​ – a neutral area between two highs and two lows.
PRESSURE GRADIENT
● Definition: The rate of change of pressure over distance is measured at right angles to the isobars
● It is steepest when isobars are close
● It determines wind velocity (the closer the isobars the stronger the winds)

CORIOLIS FORCE
● Anything moving above the surface of the earth will continue to move in a straight line if no force acts on it.
● However, wind does not move in a straight line.Nor does high pressure flow towards low pressure in a straight line since the earth rotates on an angle.
● In the Northern hemisphere:
○ Low pressure is deflected to the right causing it to flow counter clockwise
○ High pressure is deflected to the right causing it to flow clockwise

BUY BALLOT’S LAW

● It is the relationship between pressure and the wind
● If you stand with your back to the wind, the ​L​ower pressure will be on your L
​ ​eft
○ This applies to the Northern Hemisphere only
○ It is the opposite in the Southern Hemisphere

SURFACE FRICTION
● Definition: Friction between the surface on the earth and the atmosphere will slow the movement of the air.
● This affects the direction and speed of air moving from an area of high pressure to low pressure.
● Does not apply above 2000 feet
ATMOSPHERIC HEATING

1. Convection 2. Advection
a. Ground is warm and the air rises, cold air replaces it causing a a. Cold air goes over an area of warmer air. The bottom of the cold
vertical circulation air mass heats up.
b. Also called advection heating

3. Compression 4. Turbulence
a. As air sinks, it moves into an area of high pressure – this causes a. Mechanical turbulence which is the result of friction
it to be compressed which results in heating the mass of air. between the air and the ground causes a mixing process
that spreads the surface heat into the air

STABILITY
● Stability: The tendency of air to remain at the horizontal level when disturbed. It resist upward and downward displacement.
● Instability: The tendency of air to move away from its original horizontal level when disturbed.

LAPSE RATE
● The lapse rate is defined as the rate at which atmospheric temperature decreases with an increase in altitude.
● There are three types of lapse rate
a. Dry Adiabatic – 3 degrees per 1000 ft
b. Wet (Saturated) Adiabatic – 1.5 degrees per 1000 ft
c. ICAO standard – 1.98 degrees per 1000 ft

STABILITY & LAPSE RATE

Unstable Air Stable Air

● Indicated by steep lapse rate ● Indicated by shallow lapse rate

● Steeper lapse rate = more unstable air ● Shallower lapse rate = more stable air.
● Greater than the ICAO standard ● Less than the ICAO standard

STABLE VS UNSTABLE AIR

AIR MASS
● Definition: A large section of the troposphere with uniform properties of temperature and moisture in the horizontal.
● An air mass can extend for several thousands of miles.
● 5 types…
○ Continental (c) - dry
○ Maritime (m) - moist
○ Arctic (A) - cold
○ Polar (P)- moderate moderate
○ Tropical (T) - hot

PROPERTIES OF AN AIR MASS

Cold Air Mass Warm Air Mass

● Turbulent ● Stable
● Good visibility ● Smooth air
● Cumuliform clouds ● Poor visibility
● Shower type precipitation ● Stratiform clouds
● Thunderstorms may occur ● Steady type precipitation
● Generally stable but heating from below creates instability

FRONTS
● Definition: A transition zone between different air masses.

Cold Front Warm Front

● The leading edge of an advancing cold air mass ● The trailing edge of a retreating cold air mass
● The slope of the front is very steep ● Shallow slope
● Narrow weather band – changes occur rapidly ● Wide weather band – up to 500 miles
● Can be very severe Weather in a cold front ● Stratiform clouds Weather in a cold front
● Clouds of vertical development ● Stratus clouds
● Showers ● Wind veer
● Wind veer ● Steady precipitation
● Temperature decreases behind the front Fast moving cold fronts may ● Temperature rises behind front
produce severe thunderstorms and/or squall lines ● Thunderstorms may be embedded in the stratus clouds

APPROACHING WARM FRONT

● Sequence of clouds indicating the approach of warm front are:
○ C – cirrus
○ C – cirrostratus
○ A – altostratus
○ N – Nimbostratus
○ S – stratus
■ Abbreviation – C-CANS
PRECIPITATION
● Definition: When water droplets (visible as a cloud) grow sufficiently in size and weight they fall due to gravity.
● Forms of precipitation:

FOG
● Fog is a cloud, usually status, in contact with the ground.
● It forms when the air is cooled below its dew point.
1. Radiation Fog
a. Forms on clear night
b. Other favorable conditions include: clear skies, moist air, and light winds.
c. Ground cools at night by losing heat – lack of solar radiation.
d. The air in direct contact with the earth’s surface is cooled.
e. IF this air is moist and the temperature is lowered to the dew point, fog will form.
2. Advection Fog
a. Forms when moist warm air moves over a cold surface.
3. Upslope Fog
a. Caused by the cooling of air due to expansion as it moves up a slope.
4. Steam Fog
a. Forms when cold air passes over a warm water surface.
b. Evaporation occur and excess water vapour condenses as fog.
5. Frontal Fog
a. Warm front fogs are the most extensive.
b. They are caused by cold air becoming saturated by evaporation from rain falling from the warm air.
c. Also known as precipitation – induced fog.
6. Ice Fog
a. At very low temperature, the air may become full of ice crystals.
b. Ice fog only forms under specific conditions; the humidity has to be near 100% as the air temperature drops to well below 0 °C (32 °F), allowing
ice crystals to form in the air.
c. The ice crystals will then settle onto surfaces.

THUNDERSTORMS
● Definition: A weather phenomena whose presence creates extremely serious hazard to flying.
● They may be accompanied by:
○ Thunder, Lightning, Hail, Heavy rain, Severe gust and turbulence, Strong vertical drafts, Tornadoes,Micro/macrobursts, Severe wind shear, Ice
● Thunderstorms must have the following requirements:
○ Unstable air to high levels
○ Lifting agents
○ High moisture content
● The stages of a thunderstorm
○ Stage #1
■ The initial or cumulus stage
■ Strong updrafts prevail
■ Temperature is higher inside the cloud than the surrounding air
■ Diameter ranges from 1 to 2 miles
■ Steep lapse rate
 ○ Stage #2
■ The Mature Stage
■ Updrafts penetrate to great heights
■ Downdrafts start in the middle and lower levels of cell
■ Precipitation starts
■ This stage usually lasts between 15 to 30 minutes.
○ Stage #3
■ The Dissipating Stage
■ Downdrafts occupies all but top of the cloud where updraft persists
■ Rain starts to slow and stop
■ Top of cloud frays into anvil shape

THUNDERSTORM HAZARDS
● Turbulence – could overstress the aircraft or cause loss of controls
● Winds – dangers of gusts up to 80 knots and rapids changes in direction
● Hail – could cause serious structural damage
● Icing – abundance of supercooled water droplets will cause severe icing
● Lightning – can hamper a pilot’s vision for about 30-50 seconds at a time
● Pressure – rapid changes leading to unreliable altimeter readings
❖ If you must fly past a thunderstorm, stay at least 15 miles away and pass to the right to encounter more favorable winds.

TURBULENCE
● This is an irregular motion of air resulting from EDDIES and vertical currents.
● There are four types/causes of turbulence:
1. Mechanical Turbulence: Friction between the air and the ground especially from man made obstacles causes “Eddies”.
2. Thermal Turbulence: Hot sunny days when the sun heats the earth’s surface unevenly. Convection currents form causing turbulence.
3. Frontal Turbulence: The lifting of the warm air by the sloping frontal surface and friction between 2 air masses produces turbulence.
4. Wind Shear: Sharp changes in wind direction and speed either vertical or horizontal.

CLASSIFICATION OF TURBULENCE
There are four classifications of turbulence...
1. Light: Momentary slight changes in altitude and/or attitude or slight bumpiness
2. Moderate: Occupants may feel a strain against their seat belts and unsecured objects will be dislodged.
3. Severe: large and abrupt changes in altitude and/or attitude and usually large variations in indicated air speed.
4. Extreme: Airplane is tossed about violently and is impossible to control. May lead to structural damage.

AIRCRAFT ICING
In temperatures at or below freezing, supercooled water droplets may strike an aircraft and freeze. This is known as icing.
● There are four types of icing...
1. Frozen Dew: Dew may form on an aircraft over night. If the aircraft skin temperature falls below freezing this dew will freeze. (White semi-crystalline frost)
2. Hoar Frost: A white, feathery, crystalline formation that covers the entire surface of the aircraft. Forms in clear air when a cold aircraft enter warmer, damper
air during a steep descent.
3. Rime Ice: An opaque or milky white ice that forms on an aircraft. Forms by the almost instantaneous freezing of small supercooled water droplets. Has no
great weight.
4. Clear Ice: A coating of glassy like ice. Forms as supercooled water droplets freeze slowly and spread. Can increase drag by as much as 300% - 500%.

PREVENTION AGAINST AIRCRAFT ICING

There are three main types of prevention against aircraft icing...
1. Fluids – released on the leading edge to flow over the blades of the propeller and wing surfaces
2. Rubber boots – membranes of rubber attached to the leading edges.
3. Heating devices – heating vulnerable areas with hot air from the engine or special heaters is a method of preventing the buildup of ice.

AVIATION WEATHER REPORTS

● Metar: Hourly weather report (issued on the hour every hour)
● Speci: special weather observations issued at times other than on the hour, as a result of a significant weather change.

METAR
1. Airport Identifier
a. INTERNATIONAL - 4 LETTERS
i. I.e. CYWG → Winnipeg (C – Canadian airport)
2. Date and Time
a. The date and time of the observation are always given in six digits, using universal coordinated time (UTC) which is a 5 hour difference from
eastern time in Ontario
 i. I.e. 201400Z → 20th day at 1400 (2pm) Zulu
3. Surface Winds
a. Wind Direction is stated in degrees true, always 3 digits to the nearest 10 degrees.
b. The last two numbers refer to the speed in knots.
i. I.e. VRB02KT → wind speed is variable at 2 KT 00000KT 000 degrees T at 00 KT
4. Prevailing Visibility
a. It is the greatest visibility common to 1/2 or more of the horizontal circle (observation point)
b. Reported in statute miles and fractions
i. I.e. 2 1/2SM → 2.5 statute miles
5. Runway Visual Range
a. Reported whenever prevailing visibility is 1 mile more or less and/or the RVR is indicating 6,000 ft or less
b. It is based on a 10 minute average
i. I.e. R36L/4000FT/D → Runway 36 left has a visual range of 4000 feet and the trend is decreasing
6. Present Weather
a. It is comprised of weather phenomena (precipitation, obscuration, or other phenomena) preceded by one or two qualifiers (intensity or proximity
to the station and descriptor)
b. Intensity modifier + Type of Weather
c. The symbol “-” represents “light” & the symbol “+” represents “heavy”
i. -SN → light snow
1. Weather Abbreviations

SH → Showers BL→ Blowing MI→ Shallow PR→ Partial RA→ Rain IC→ Ice Crystals

FZ→ Freezing DR→ Low Drifting BC→ Patches TS→ Thunderstorm DZ→ Drizzle PL→ Ice Pellets

SN→ Snow SG→ Snow Grains GR→ Hail GS→ Snow Pellets UP→ Unknown

7. Obscuring Phenomena

HZ→ Haze SA→ Sand DU→ Dust FU→ Smoke FG→ Fog (Visibility < ⅝) BR→ Mist (Visibility > ⅝)

VA→ Volcanic Ash +FC → FC→ Funnel SS→ Sand Storm +SS→ Sand Storm (Visibility < DS→ Dust Storm (Visibility < 5/16)
Tornado Cloud 5/16)

SQ → Squalls

8. Sky Conditions
a. The sky is divided into 8 segments, each called an okta
b. Codes for sky cover amounts are:
i. SKC…………… Sky clear
ii. FEW ................... Few
iii. 2/8 SCT……………. Scattered
iv. 3/8 to 4/8 BKN …………… Broken
v. 5/8 to 7/8 OVC……………. Sky Overcast
c. A cloud ceiling is said to exist when the coverage symbol BKN or OVC is reported.
i. I.e. SCT004 BKN025 BKN160 scattered at 400’ AGL, broken at 2500’AGL, broken at 16000’AGL
d. If clouds are low, height are given in a vertical visibility height
i. I.e. VV002 vertical visibility of 200’ AGL
9. Temperature and Dew Point
a. Recorded in degrees Celsius
b. “M” signifies a negative temperature
c. Temperature and dew point are separated by a slash (/)
i. I.e. 06/05 Temperature 6 degrees/ dew point 5 degrees
10. Altimeter Setting
a. “A” is the group identifier that indicates altimeter setting Reported in inches of mercury
b. Altimeter settings are given in hundredths of an inch of mercury
i. I.e. A3006 30.06 Inches of mercury (“Hg) A2919 29.19”Hg
11. Remarks
a. Includes the following information:
i. Cloud layer type and opacity in eights of sky concealed
ii. Sea level pressure (SLP) in hectopascal (hPa)
1. When the SLP is between 0 and 5 put 10 in front of the number SLP162 = 1016.2mb
2. When the SLP is between 6 and 9 put a 9 in front of the number SLP993 = 999.3mb
iii. Other weather significant to aviation.
1. I.e. RMK SC3AC1 SLP179= Remarks Stratocumulus 3 oktas, altocumulus 1 okta, sea level pressure 1017.9mb
 12. Cloud Abbreviations Remarks
a. The following abbreviations are used for cloud types:

CI → Cirrus ST→ Stratus CS→ Cirrostratus SF→ Stratus Fractus CC→ Cirrocumulus SC→ StratoCumulus

AS→ Altostratus CU→ Cumulus AC→ Altocumulus CUFRA→ Cumulus NS→Nimbostratus TCU→ Towering
Fractus Cumulus

CB → Cumulonimbus ACC → GR→ Hail GS→ Snow Pellets UP→ Unknown

altocumulus
castellanus

SAMPLE METAR:
METAR CYQQ 201400Z 00000KT 2 1/2SM SCT004 BKN025 BKN160 06/05 A3006 RMK SC3AC1 SLP179= SPECI CMYKF 201347Z AUTO 19011G20KT
9SM SCT008 BKN015 OVC021 M07/M09 A2919 RMK MAX WND 21016KT AT 1305Z=

TAF
● Stands for Terminal Area Forecast
● It is a coded prediction of the surface weather expected that will affect landing and take-off at the aerodrome
● It gives the same information as in a METAR except it does not forecast…
○ Temperature, dewpoint, altimeter setting, type of clouds, or sea level pressure

1. Type of Report
a. Decoded the same way as in a METAR
2. Airport Identifier
a. Represented in the same way as in a METAR
3. Forecasted winds
a. Calm wind forecasted as 00000KT
b. Wind speeds of 3KTs or less may be encoded as variable direction
i. I.e. VRB03KT
4. Forecasted Visibility
a. Prevailing visibility is forecast in statute miles (SM) and fractions up to 3 miles, then in whole miles up to 6 miles
b. When visibilities are forecasted to be greater than 6 SMs, will be coded as P6SM
5. Forecasted Weather and Clouds
a. Same abbreviations/codes for weather phenomena as in METARs
b. NSC (no significant cloud) and CAVOK (ceiling and visibility OK) are extra abbreviations used (not in Canada)
6. Issued time and validity time
a. TAFs are issued 4 times a day often 20 minutes before it become valid
b. They are usually valid for 12 to 24 hours
c. Read in date and hour format
i. I.e. 251130Z 2512/2612 : Issued on the 25th day at 1130 Zulu Valid from the 25th at 12Z to the 26th at 12Z
7. Other Terms used are:
a. FM – from, indicates a permanent change
b. BECMG – becoming, indicates a gradual and permanent change in some elements
c. TEMPO – temporarily, indicates fluctuation in the forecast for a brief time
d. PROB – probability (either 30 or 40%)
i. Used with aviation hazards like thunderstorms, freezing rain, low level wind shear below 1500ft AGL; or ceiling and visibility values
important to aircraft operations
8. Remarks
a. Give extra information
b. Often state when the next forecast will be given
i. AUTO OBS indicates forecast based on observations from an automatic weather station (AWOS) data
1. I.e. RMK FCST BY 251900Z: Remark, next forecast will be on the 25th day at 1900Z

SAMPLE TAF:
TAF CYQQ 251130Z 2512/2612 30003KT P6SM FEW005 FEW030 FM251800 VRB03KT P6SM FEW030 BECMG 2604/2606 14010KT SCT030 BKN150
OVC250 BECMG 2609/2611 14020KT RMK NXT FCST BY 251800Z=