1.

Introduction to Deep Generative Models

• Definition: Deep Generative Models are a class of machine learning models designed
to generate new data samples that resemble a given dataset. They learn the
underlying distribution of the data and can produce new instances with similar
properties.

• Types: Include Restricted Boltzmann Machines (RBMs), Deep Belief Networks (DBNs),
Variational Autoencoders (VAEs), and Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs).

• Applications: Data augmentation, image generation, text generation, and more.

2. Restricted Boltzmann Machines (RBMs)

• Definition: RBMs are a type of generative stochastic neural network that can learn a
probability distribution over its set of inputs.

• Architecture:

o Visible Layer: Represents the observed data.

o Hidden Layer: Captures dependencies between the visible units.

o Symmetric Connections: Connections between the visible and hidden layers,

but no connections within a layer.

• Energy Function:

o Formula: E(v,h)=−∑ivibi−∑jhjcj−∑i,jvihjWijE(v, h) = -\sum_i v_i b_i - \sum_j h_j

c_j - \sum_{i,j} v_i h_j W_{ij}

▪ viv_i: Visible units

▪ hjh_j: Hidden units

▪ bib_i, cjc_j: Bias terms

▪ WijW_{ij}: Weights

• Training:

o Use contrastive divergence to approximate the gradient of the log-likelihood

and update the weights.

3. Gibbs Sampling for Training RBMs

• Definition: A Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) method used to approximate the
distribution of the data and train RBMs.
 • Steps:

o Initialize Visible Units: Start with a sample of the visible units.

o Sample Hidden Units: Sample hidden units from their conditional distribution
given the visible units.

▪ Formula: P(hj=1∣v)=σ(cj+∑iviWij)P(h_j = 1 | v) = \sigma(c_j + \sum_i v_i

W_{ij})

o Sample Visible Units: Sample visible units from their conditional distribution
given the hidden units.

▪ Formula: P(vi=1∣h)=σ(bi+∑jhjWij)P(v_i = 1 | h) = \sigma(b_i + \sum_j h_j

W_{ij})

o Repeat: Iterate this process to approximate the joint distribution.

4. Deep Belief Networks (DBNs)

• Definition: A type of generative model composed of multiple layers of RBMs, where

each layer learns to capture higher-level features of the data.

• Architecture:

o Stacks of RBMs, with each layer providing the input to the next layer.

• Training:

o Layer-wise Pretraining: Train each RBM layer by layer, starting from the bottom.

▪ Greedy Algorithm: Train one layer at a time, freezing the weights of the
previous layers.

o Fine-Tuning: Use backpropagation to fine-tune the entire network, often with a

supervised objective.

5. Markov Networks

• Definition: Also known as Markov Random Fields (MRFs), these are undirected
graphical models that represent the joint distribution of a set of random variables.

• Components:

o Nodes: Represent random variables.

o Edges: Represent dependencies between variables.

 • Energy-Based Model: The probability distribution is defined in terms of an energy
function.

o Formula: P(x)=1Zexp⁡(−E(x))P(x) = \frac{1}{Z} \exp(-E(x))

▪ E(x)E(x): Energy function

▪ ZZ: Partition function (normalization constant)

6. Markov Chains

• Definition: A stochastic process that transitions from one state to another based on a
probabilistic rule. The next state depends only on the current state (Markov property).

• Properties:

o Memoryless: The next state depends only on the current state, not the history.

o Transition Matrix: Represents the probabilities of moving from one state to

another.

• Applications: Sequence modeling, language modeling, and other applications involving

sequential data.

7. Auto-Regressive Models

• Definition: Models that predict the next value in a sequence based on previous values.
They are commonly used for time series analysis and sequence generation.

• Examples:

o NADE (Neural Autoregressive Distribution Estimator): Uses a neural network to

model the conditional distributions of each variable.

▪ Training: Minimize the negative log-likelihood of the data.

o MADE (Masked Autoencoder for Distribution Estimation): Modifies

autoencoders to estimate distributions while respecting the autoregressive
property.

▪ Masking: Ensures that the model respects the autoregressive property

by zeroing out certain weights.

o PixelRNN: A neural network designed for image generation, predicting pixels

one at a time in a raster scan order.

▪ Architecture: Uses RNNs to generate images pixel by pixel.

8. Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs)

• Definition: A class of generative models that consist of two neural networks, a

generator and a discriminator, that are trained simultaneously through adversarial
processes.

• Components:

o Generator: Generates fake data samples.

▪ Objective: Minimize the probability that the discriminator correctly

identifies fake data.

▪ Loss Function:
min⁡Gmax⁡DV(D,G)=Ex∼pdata(x)[log⁡D(x)]+Ez∼pz(z)[log⁡(1−D(G(z)))]
\min_G \max_D V(D, G) = \mathbb{E}_{x \sim p_{\text{data}}(x)}[\log
D(x)] + \mathbb{E}_{z \sim p_z(z)}[\log(1 - D(G(z)))]

o Discriminator: Distinguishes between real and fake data samples.

▪ Objective: Maximize the probability that the discriminator correctly

identifies real and fake data.

• Training:

o Adversarial Process: The generator and discriminator are trained in a min-max

game.

o Convergence: The goal is for the generator to produce data that the
discriminator cannot distinguish from real data.

9. Applications of Deep Learning in Various Domains

• Object Detection:

o Techniques: YOLO (You Only Look Once), Faster R-CNN, SSD (Single Shot
MultiBox Detector).

o Applications: Autonomous driving, surveillance, robotics.

• Speech Recognition:

o Models: DeepSpeech, WaveNet.

o Applications: Virtual assistants, transcription services.

• Image Recognition:
 o Models: ResNet, Inception, EfficientNet.

o Applications: Medical imaging, security systems, content moderation.

• Video Analysis:

o Tasks: Action recognition, video summarization, activity detection.

o Applications: Sports analytics, video surveillance, entertainment.

• Natural Language Processing (NLP):

o Tasks: Text classification, sentiment analysis, language translation, text

generation.

o Models: BERT, GPT, Transformer.

o Applications: Chatbots, machine translation, sentiment analysis,

summarization.

• Medical Science:

o Applications: Medical image analysis (e.g., tumor detection, segmentation),

diagnosis prediction, personalized medicine.

o Techniques