States in India: 7th-13th

Century CE UNIT 10 POLITIES IN HIMALAYAN REGION:

EASTERN HIMALAYAS1
Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Situating the Region
10.3 Chiefdoms and Kingdoms
10.3.1 Establishment of Clans in Monyul Region
10.3.2 Chutia Kingdom
10.3.3 Davaka Kingdom
10.3.4 Kamarupa Kingdom
10.4 Summary
10.5 Glossary
10.6 Exercises
10.7 References

10.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will know:
 what constitutes the Eastern Himalayas – its historical geography; and
 about the various kingdoms and the rulers that ruled this region during the period
7th-13th century CE; and the reasons for the growth of these polities.

10.1 INTRODUCTION
The Himalayas play an important role in the Indian psyche. In the form of folklores,
songs, poems etc., these mountains have always been an integral part of our historical
existence. From ancient times this mountain range has found mention in various literary
texts. For instance, the Himalaya was termed by the great Sanskrit poet Kalidasa as
‘measuring rod of the earth’. The Sanskrit term Himalaya means ‘abode of the snow’,
here hima stands for snow and a-laya means home or dwelling. The name itself
describes the physical appearance of the mountain range. Geographically speaking,
the mountain range extends from Afghanistan in the west to Arunachal Pradesh in the
east and it runs undisrupted for about 3000 kms. in length. It covers the preset-day
states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, several districts of Uttarakhand,
north-eastern states of Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh and the Darjeeling hills of West
Bengal in India. The Himalayas have been divided into three transverse zones:
i) Western Himalayas (Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh)

1
Ms. Silpisikha Baruah, Assistant Professor, Department of History, Lanka Mahavidyalaya,
142 Gauhati University, Assam
ii) Central Himalayas (Uttarakhand and Nepal) Polities In
Himalayan Region:
Eastern Himalayas
iii) Eastern Himalayas2
In this Unit we will discuss about the political formations and structures in eastern
Himalayan region during 7th-13th century CE.

10.2 SITUATING THE REGION

The term ‘Eastern Himalayas’ refers to the region that constitutes Bhutan, north-east
Indian states of Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh, and the Darjeeling hills of north Bengal.
In this section, the focus will be on the states of Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and the
Darjeeling hills of north Bengal. Interestingly, the time-period that we are dealing with
also demands us to look at the sub-Himalayan region of Assam in north-east India, as
major polities emerged from this region during this time and extended to the eastern
Himalayas.

The idea of nation-state and the strictly demarcated state boundaries is a newer concept.
It was the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 which is generally considered as the date for
the creation of nation-states. However, it involves various distinct and related processes.
In the context of India, Gyanesh Kudaisya has opined that the existing structure of the
states of the Indian Union is partly the result of accident and the circumstances attending
the growth of the British power in India, and partly a by-product of the historic process
of the integration of former Indian states.3 After the abolition of the monarchy Sikkim
became a part of the Indian Union in 1975. According to A. C. Sinha, Sikkim claims
that it had an extensive territory in the past. In a series of political events it lost many of
its territories to Nepal, Bhutan and even Darjeeling hills to British India between 1817
to 1861.

Arunachal Pradesh, on the other hand, was known as North-East Frontier Agency
and constitutionally it was a part of Assam. However, it got Union Territory status in
1972 and finally became a full-fledged state on February 20, 1987. The Darjeeling
hills became a part of the newly formed state of West Bengal after independence. It is
evident here that the period that we are dealing with will be difficult to understand if we
keep these present-day demarcations in mind. The major polities that emerged during
the period between 7th-13th century CE goes beyond these state boundaries and covered
an area that had sway over eastern Himalayas and the sub-Himalayas.

10.3 CHIEFDOMS AND KINGDOMS

In the region of Eastern Himalayas, it appears that 7th-13th century CE is a period that
has seen pre-state chiefdoms. In the case of Sikkim, it has been noticed that prior to
the establishment of the kingdom of Sikkim in the 17th century the history of Sikkim is
under obscurity. This development is, however, related with the Bhotia migrations which
seem to have begun during the 16th century. The Bhotias, who migrated and made

2
B. P. Singh, ‘The Eastern Himalaya: Wetlands, Forests and Beliefs’, Economic and Political
Weekly, Aug. 4-10, 2001, Vol. 36, No. 31 (Aug. 4-10, 2001), p. 2969
3
Gyanesh Kudaisya, ‘Reorganisation of States in India: Text and Content’, National Book Trust,
India, 2015, p. 9 143
States in India: 7th-13th contact with the native Lepchas, led to the foundation of the kingdom of Sikkim.4 It
Century CE
can be said that the documented and authentic history of Sikkim started with the
foundation of the state and the consecration of its first Chogyal in 1642. Whatever we
get to know about the region before this period is based on scant material provided by
tribal traditions. The Lepcha people are believed to be the early settlers of Sikkim.
But, to know about their early history and tribal organization there is no definitive way.
On the basis of a mass folklore which has come down from generations it can be
believed that there was a loose type of tribal organization in Sikkim.5 The first tribal set
up was organized by a man named Turve and he was given the title of Punu. According
to the folklore the last Lepcha raja was Tubh Athak Punu. But, the time-period of the
reign of Punus is unknown. The sub-Himalayan region had already experienced state
formation by this time. For instance, we have the Kamarupa kingdom (4th-12th century
CE) whose territory was not only confined to present-day Assam but it extended to
the neighbouring states as well. According to S. L. Barua the kingdom of Kamarupa
extended up to the river Karatoya in the west and included Manipur, Jaintiya, Cachar,
parts of Mymensing, Sylhet, Rangpur and portions of Nepal and Bhutan.6 These
geographical contours, however, changed with the changing monarchy. The state of
Arunachal Pradesh shares borders with Assam, Nagaland in the south and international
border with Myanmar, Bhutan and Tibet Autonomous Region of China. It can be said
that during the period 7th-13th century the area that now comes under the state of
Arunachal Pradesh witnessed various chiefdoms and kingdoms. The region of western
Arunachal Pradesh saw the emergence of clanship in Monyul, in the east the Chutia
kingdom (8th-16th century CE) and many of its hilly tracts came under the Kamarupa
kingdom.

10.3.1 Establishment of Clans in Monyul Region

Monyul is the region inhabited by the Monpa people. In the Monyul region in ninth
century CE an exiled Tibetan prince arrived, proclaimed himself the king of Monyul
and constructed several fortresses there, the ruins of which are still noticeable. In the
Monyul region his subordinates and soldiers also settled. The senior clans of Monyul
constituted of the descendants of the king and his family while those of the subordinates
and soldiers made up the junior clans. Moreover, by the medieval time western Arunachal
Pradesh also experienced Tibetan administrative control in the region of Monyul.
Monyul was under the control of the Tibetan administration in Lhasa and this situation
was reinforced by the imposition of a tax called khrey (khral).7

10.3.2 Chutia Kingdom

The Chutia kingdom had an early existence but it came into prominence in the mid-14th
century CE. This is evident from the fact that when the Ahoms first came to settle down
in Assam they were looking for places in upper Assam and their contemporary chronicles

4
Pranab Kumar Bhattacharyya, Aspect of Cultural History of Sikkim: Studies in Coinage, K. P.
Bagchi & Company, Kolkata, 1984, p. 11
5
George Kotturan, The Himalayan Gateway: History and Culture of Sikkim, Sterling Publishers,
New Delhi, 1983, p. 19
6
S. L. Barua, A Comprehensive History of Assam, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, New
Delhi, 1995, p. 75
7
Kazuharu Mizuno and Lobsang Tenpa, Himalayan Nature and Tibetan Buddhist Culture in
144 Arunachal Pradesh, India: A Study of Monpa, Springer, Japan, 2015, p. 32
are silent regarding any encounter with the Chutias. This implies that prior to mid-14th Polities In
Himalayan Region:
century CE the Chutias had not assumed a dominant status. It is believed that the Eastern Himalayas
Chutias belong to the Bodos: a linguistic group of the Brahmaputra valley speaking a
Tibeto-Burman language and having different cognate groups within them.8 Originally,
they were the inhabitants of the hills to the north of Brahmaputra valley, most probably
the north-western portion of Dibang valley. They moved down from the hills to the
plains of upper Assam before the entry of the Tai-Ahoms. Jae-Eun Shin opines that in
the case of Chutias this spatial change coincided with a political transition from a chieftain
to a state. The seat of Chutia kingdom was Sadiya (eastern-most part of Assam) and
it had control over contiguous areas falling within modern Arunachal Pradesh. Due to
the dearth of historical sources to know the early history of the Chutia kingdom the
epigraphical evidence that comes from Sadiya and north Lakhimpur district are crucially
important as they bear evidence of donations to Brahmins by the Chutia kings and
these inscriptions also provide names of several kings. Basing on these records Shin
has reconstructed a line of kings ruling the region as follows:9
1) Nandin (Nandishvara)
2) Satyanarayana (or Ratnanarayana)
3) Lakshminarayana
4) Durlabhanarayana
5) Dharmanarayana
6) Pratyakshanarayana
7) Yashanarayana (or Yamanarayana)

10.3.3 Davaka Kingdom

It is because of the dearth of source material that very less has been known about the
Davaka kingdom. The Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta of about fourth
century CE mention the name of Davaka as a frontier kingdom of the Gupta empire.
The Davaka kingdom in present geographical scenario represents the areas on the
Kapili valley of Assam. It is most probable that during the reign of Kayanavarman
(c. 420-440 CE) the kingdom of Davaka was absorbed into the Kamarupa kingdom.

10.3.4 Kamarupa Kingdom

From the literary and epigraphical evidence, we are able to understand better the
kingdom of Kamarupa. The boundaries of Kamarupa tend to have changed throughout
time. It is evident that during the time of the Imperial Guptas, Kamarupa was a tributary
state of the Guptas as it finds mention in the Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta
(fourth century CE) as a frontier state. The earliest reference to Kamarupa comes
from Kautilya’s Arthashastra wherein a large number of products are mentioned,
which, according to the commentator Bhattasvamin, were the products of Kamarupa.10

8
Jae-Eun Shin, ‘Descending from demons, ascending to kshatriyas: Genealogies claims and
political process in pre-modern Northeast India, The Chutiyas and the Dimasas’, The Indian
Economic and Social History Review, 57, 1 (2020), p.51
9
Ibid, p.52
10
Nayanjot Lahiri, Pre-Ahom Assam: Studies in the Inscriptions of Assam Between the Fifth and
the Thirteenth Centuries CE, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, New Delhi, 1991, p. 10 145
States in India: 7th-13th Another name for Assam that occurs is Pragjyotisha in the Epics. The Ramayana
Century CE
locates the city of Pragjyotisha on a gold-crested mountain called Varaha which was
64 yojanas in extent and “which stood or abutted on the fathomless Varunalaya
(sea).”11 Bhagadutta, the king of Pragjyotisha, has been referred to as Shailalaya
(dwelling among the mountain), Parvatapati (lord of the mountains) and
Purvasagaravasi (inhabitant of the eastern sea) in the Mahabharata and we also
find mention of his troops which consisted of the Chinas, Kiratas and the dwellers of
the sea-coast. According to S.L. Barua the Varaha mountain mentioned in the
Ramayana was the Assam Range and the sea lay to the south of the hills which was
perhaps connected with the Bay of Bengal by the estuary of the Brahmaputra.12 If are
to believe these allusions then it can be said that during the period when the Epics
Ramayana and Mahabharata were composed and compiled the kingdom of
Pragjyotisha included greater portion of present-day Assam along with Koch-Behar,
Jalpaiguri, Rangpur, Bogra, Mymensing, Decca, Tripura, portions of Pabna and probably
a portion of Nepal. However, it cannot be said with certainty that Pragjyotisha was
alternatively used to denote the kingdom of Kamarupa. But, it is certain that the term
‘Pragjyotisha’ was used to denote the region of Assam and neighbouring areas in early
historical times. From the ancient texts of Kalika Purana and Yogini Tantra we get
some geographical description of this region and the river Karatoya is stated as the
western limit of Kamarupa.13 Suchandra Ghosh opines that though Kamarupa was
comparatively a small frontier kingdom in the fourth and fifth centuries CE, in the first
half of the sixth century CE it appears that king Narayanavarman performed two
Ashvamedha sacrifices which indicates some increase in the power of the family under
him.14 The kingdom of Kamarupa had three line of kings:
1) Varmans,
2) Salastambhas, and
3) Palas.
The Varman Dynasty (4th-7th Century CE)
Pushyavarman was the founder of the Varman line. Bhaskaravarman, who was the last
king of the Varman line, mentions in his Doobi Grants that in the lineage of Naraka was
born a king of kings named Pushyavarman, equal to Shiva in honour and fame, equal
to Indra in sacrifices, an annihilator of enemies.15 It is important to note that in Kamarupa
all the three dynasties trace their origin to Naraka. B. D. Chattopadhyaya opines that
it was the appearance of the monarchy in the Brahmaputra valley which necessitated a
metamorphosis of Naraka making him an ideal ruler (so long as he exercised his
manushya bhava) and ideal ancestor as he was the earliest known character associated
with the region.16 If we look at the inscriptions of the Varman dynasty it appears that
11
S. L. Barua, 1995, p.74
12
Ibid, p. 74
13
Silpisikha Baruah, ‘Gendering Early Kamarupa Society: c. 600-1200 CE’, Proceedings of the
Indian History Congress, 2018-19, p.126
14
Suchandra Ghosh, ‘Kamarupa and Early Bengal: Understanding their Political Relationship’,
Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Vol. 71, 2010-11, p. 110
15
S. L. Barua, 1995, p. 89
16
B. D. Chattopadhyaya, ‘Local and Beyond’, The Concept of Bharatavarsha and the Other
146 Essays, Permanent Black, New Delhi, 2017, pp. 126-127
most of them are found from the region of present-day western Assam. However, the Polities In
Himalayan Region:
Barganga Rock inscription of Bhutivarman (sixth century CE) comes from the Nowgong Eastern Himalayas
district of present-dayAssam. Pushyavarman was succeeded by his son Samudravarman
followed by Balavarman, Kalyanavarman, Mahendravarman, Bhutivarman,
Chandramukhavarman, Sthitavarman, Sastthitavarman, Supratisthitavarman and finally
Bhaskaravarman. It was during the reign of Kalyanavarman that the kingdom of Davaka
might have been brought under the control of Kamarupa. However, the reign of
Bhaskaravarman was most remarkable. According to Suchandra Ghosh, Kamarupa’s
political geography did not undergo much change except for the fact that for a brief
period rulers like Bhutivarman and Bhaskaravarman had some control over Srihatta
and Karnasuvarna.17
The Salastambha Dynasty (7th-10th Century CE)
The Salastambha dynasty is said to be of non-Aryan origin. As Bhaskaravarman had
left no heir to the throne the advantage of the situation was taken by a usurper named
Salastambha who founded a new line of kings. The Bargaon Grant of Ratnapala of the
Pala line states, “After, thus, for several generations, kings of Naraka’s dynasty had
ruled the whole country, a great chief of the Mlechchhas, owing to a turn of (adverse)
fate, took possession of the kingdom.”18 Here, the king seemed to be Salastambha.
Moreover, not only the names of the kings belonging to this family but also their tutelary
deity Hataka or Hetuka Sulin also indicates its non-Aryan origin. S. L. Barua is of the
view that like Pushyavarman, Salastambha was a Hinduised Mlechchha. During the
reign of this line of kings there was a shift in the seat of power as Salastambha might
have shifted its capital to present day Tezpur region from western Assam and named it
as Hatakeswara or Haruppeswara after their tutelary deity Hataka Sulin.
There were 20 kings in this line who followed the reign of Salastambha, ending with
Tyagasingha. Regarding the rulers like Vigraha (Vijaya), Palaka, Kumara and Vajradeva
nothing much has been known. However, following these rulers we have Shri Harshadeva
who had a glorious reign. Then, there was Balavarman-II and his successors. The next
important king of the dynasty was Pralambha. He was a contemporary of Gopala, the
first king of the Pala dynasty of Bengal. His qualities and proficiency in war are mentioned
in the Grants of Vanamala. Harjaravarman succeeded Pralambha and has left two
inscriptions:
1) Hayunthal Grant
2) Tezpur Rock Epigraph
His son was Vanamalavarmandeva and he was a powerful ruler. He assumed the title
Parameshwara Parambhattaraka Maharajadhiraja. This epithet implies that during
this time the kingdom of Kamarupa was in a glorious state. Vanamala might have
regained the lost possession of Kamarupa from Bengal as it was under the weak rule
of Vigrahapala of Gauda. His rule was followed by his son Jayamala, then Balavarman-
III who was the last important king of the dynasty. He has left three important epigraphs:
1) Uttarbarbil Grant,
2) Nowgong Grant
3) Ulubari Copper Plate

17
Suchandra Ghosh, 2010-11, p. 112
18
S. L. Barua, 1995, p. 110 147
States in India: 7th-13th Not much is known about the rulers that came after him and there is a gap between
Century CE
Balavarman-III and the last ruler of the line – Tyagasingha – with regard to historical
evidence that can be trusted and relied on.
The Pala Dynasty (10th-12th Century CE)
The Bargaon Grant of Ratnapala states that Tyagasingha possibly died childless and
fearing a rebellion his officers had seated Brahmapala to the throne (10th century CE).
Though this line took the title ‘Pala’ but they also traced their ancestry to Naraka. The
Bargaon Grant further records that Brahmapala abdicated the throne in favour of his
son Ratnapala. Ratnapala had a long rule of around 30 years and had imperial pretensions.
His Bargaon Grant gives evidence of fortification of the city of Durjaya which was
probably the new name of the ancient city of Haruppeswara: the capital of Salastambhas.
Epithets like Parameshwara, Parambhattaraka and Maharajadhiraja were also
assumed by him like the Salastambha rulers. Also, the fortification of Durjaya was a
source and cause of anxiety to a number of contemporary Indian powers like the rulers
of Gurjara, Gauda, Kerala and the Deccan, as recorded by the Bargaon Grant. From
this description it is evident that by this time Kamarupa was a powerful state and was
aware of its political contemporaries.
After Ratnapala’s death the throne of Kamarupa was assumed by his grandson
Indrapala. The Gachtal Grant of Gopala records that he defeated Kalyana Chandra,
son of Shri Chandra of Vanga who was the vanquisher of a king of Gauda.19 Indrapala
also entered into a marriage alliance with the Rashtrakutas. Moreover, from the
Guakuchi Grant it is evident that he had sway over Pundravardhana. His son Gopala
from his Rashtrakuta wife Rajyadevi succeeded him. Then, Gopala’s son Harshapala
succeeded him and he was a man of learning. However, in comparison to other rulers
of this line he was weak. The last important ruler of this dynasty was Dharmapala, the
son of Harshapala. He was an illustrious king. He tried to regain lost glory of his
predecessors and made conquest in North Bengal and also towards the sea. The
policy of granting land to Brahmins amidst non-Aryan population continued during the
time of Palas too, which is evident from the Subhankarapataka Grant. It was during
Dharmapala’s reign that the capital city was shifted to Kamarupanagara. Jayapala was
the last known ruler of this line.

10.4 SUMMARY
In the Eastern Himalayas the emergence of polities was not a universal phenomenon.
In some areas the state formation started quite early such as the kingdoms of Kamarupa
and Davaka. However, in many of the areas we have noticed chiefdoms and emergence
of clans. Moreover, most of the prominent polities emerged in the sub-Himalayan
region having extensions to the eastern Himalayas. The major polities that emerged in
this region were Kamarupa kingdom, Davaka kingdom and Chutia kingdom. The Chutia
kingdom raised to prominence in the medieval time. Interestingly, the large-scale land-
grants that were made to the Brahmins played an important role in the flourishing of
these political formations and structures. This was a two-way process: while the rulers
were granting land to the Brahmins and particularly in areas inhabited by non-Aryan
people, they, on the other hand, were legitimizing the rule of the monarchs. Moreover,
19
148 S. L. Barua, 1995, p. 124
the Naraka myth and assigning a pure ancestry to the rulers itself suggest the emergence Polities In
Himalayan Region:
of monarchy in the region. Eastern Himalayas

10.5 GLOSSARY
Lepchas : The Lepcha community is indigenous to the Indian state of Sikkim.
They are believed to be the early settlers of Sikkim. Moreover,
we find this community in mountain valleys of western Bhutan
and parts of Nepal and West Bengal.
Monyul : Monyul literally means ‘lowland’. According to Tibetan Buddhist
texts, the territory immediately to the south of Tibet below the
Himalayan crest line is known as Monyul.
Clan : Clan implies a group of people tracing their origin from a common
ancestor.
Kamarupa : Kamarupa was a kingdom that emerged during the period 4th-
13th century CE. It was spread not only to present-day Assam
but also extended to its present neighbouring states.
Mlechcha : This is a Sanskrit term that implies incomprehensible speech. It
later began to denote foreign or barbarous invaders.

10.6 EXERCISES
1) What to do you understand by Eastern Himalayas? Why is it important for us to
look at Eastern Himalayas beyond present-day state boundaries?
2) Throw light on Eastern Himalayan polities between 7th to 13th century CE.
3) Discuss the dynasties that ruled the Kamarupa kingdom and describe the kingdom’s
geographical extent.

10.7 REFERENCES
H.K. Barpujari, A Comprehensive History of Assam, Vol.-I, Publication Board
Assam, 1992
Nayanjot Lahiri, Pre-Ahom Assam: Studies in the Inscriptions of Assam Between
the Fifth and the Thirteenth Centuries AD, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, New
Delhi, 1991
George Kotturan, The Himalayan Gateway: History and Culture of Sikkim, Sterling
Publishers, New Delhi, 1983
Kazuharu Mizuno and Lobsang Tenpa, Himalayan Nature and Tibetan Buddhist
Culture in Arunachal Pradesh, India: A Study of Monpa, Springer, Japan, 2015
J.N. Chowdhury, The Tribal Culture and History of Arunachal Pradesh, Daya
Publishing House, 1990

149
States in India: 7th-13th
Century CE

150