ASSIGNMENT

SUBMITTED TO:
Mam Imsha Akram
SUBMITTED BY:
Group8
Anam Shehnaz (08) Aresha Abid (13)
Ifra Safdar (27) Momina javed (50)
Nasira Batool (51) Tehreem Fatima (60)
Zunaira Ilyas (65)
COURSE TITLE:
Advanced Set Theory
COURSE CODE:
MTH - 413
TOPIC:
Cardinal Numbers
DEPARTMENT:
BS Mathematics

Govt College Women University Faisalabad

Cardinal Numbers

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A cardinal number, or cardinal for short, is what is commonly called
the number of elements of a set. In the case of a finite set, its cardinal
number, or cardinality is therefore a natural number. For dealing with
the case of infinite sets, the infinite cardinal numbers have been
introduced, which are often denoted with the Hebrew letter
(aleph ℵ °).The cardinal number of the unit interval I = [0,1] is
denoted by c.

Ordering of Cardinal Numbers

Let A and B be two sets. We say that ¿ A∨¿∨B∨¿ if there exist a
function f : A → B which is one-to-one (Injective).

Let A and B be two sets. We say that ¿ A∨¿∨B∨¿ if there exist a

function f : A → B which is one-to-one (Injective) but does not exist
any function from A to B which is onto.

Let A and B be two sets. We say that | A|=¿ B∨¿ if there exist a function
f : A → B which is one-to-one (Injective) and onto.

Examples:-
1- Let A be a proper subset of finite set B then ¿ A∨¿∨B∨¿
because A and B are finite sets such that A ≠ B . Therefore
¿ A∨≠∨B∨.
e.g. A = { 1,2,3,4 } B = { 2,3 }
¿ A∨¿ = 4 ¿ B∨¿ = 2
¿ A∨¿∨B∨¿
2- For any finite cardinal number n,
n< N °

Since n is finite cardinal number, so the corresponding set A

is finite i.e A={1 , 2, 3 , … .. n} and ¿ A∨¿ n .

Since A={1 , 2, 3 , … .. n} is a proper sub set of P (set of proper

integers) therefore

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¿ A∨¿∨P∨¿ ⇒ n< N °.

3- Consider the set P of positive integers and the unit closed

interval I =[ 0 , 1 ] such that | I |=C and P=N °
Now define a function f : P → I by
1
f ( n )=
n ;n ∈ P
Let n1 ,n2 ∈P such that
f(n1) = f(n2)
1 1
⇔
n1 = n2
⇔ n1= n2
Hence f is one- one
⇒ ¿ P∨≤∨I ∨¿ ⇒ N° ≤ C (1)

Since I =[ 0 , 1 ] is non-denumerable, therefore I≉ P

¿ P∨≠∨I ∨¿ ⇒ N° ≠ C (2)

From 1 &2, we have

N ° <C

4- From any infinite cardinal number ∝, we always have N ° ≤ ∝.

Because if ∝=¿ A∨¿, then A is an infinite set.
Since every infinite set contains a denumerable subset. So A
also contain a denumerable subset D i.e D is subset of A i.e
D⊆A
⇒ ¿ P∨≤∨I ∨¿
⇒ N° ≤ ∞

Theorem 6.9:- Cantor’s Theorem

Statement :-
For any set A we have ¿ A∨¿∨P( A )∨¿

Proof :-
Let us define a function g : A → P( A) which sends each
element a ∈ A into the set considering of a alone i.e which is define by
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 g(a)={a } ;a∈A

Clearly, g : A → P( A) is one-one function because

If a , b ∈ A such that

g(a) = g(b)
⇔ {a} = {b}
⇔ a = b

Hence , g is one-one

Thus ¿ A∨≤∨P( A)∨¿

Now to show that ¿ A∨≠∨P( A)∨¿ for any set A we have to prove that
there does not exists any function from A to P(A) which is onto.

Suppose on contrary | A|=¿ P( A)∨¿ and there exist a function

g : A → P( A) which onto.

Since g is onto. So for any set X ∈P(A) , ∋ some element x∈ A such

that g(x) = X

Now , let B be the set of those elements of A which does not belong
to their own image. i.e.
B={b :b ∈ A ,b ∉ g (b)}

Then B⊆A. Hence B∈ P( A).

Since g is onto. So for any set B ∈P(A) , ∋ some element x∈ A such

that g(x) = B ------------------ (1)

Now there are two possibilities i.e. x ∈ B∨x ∉ B

If x ∈ B , then by definition of B x ∉ g ( x ) =B by (1)

⇒ x∉ B (contradiction)

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If x ∉ B , then by definition of B x ∈ g ( x ) =B by (1)
⇒ x∈ B (contradiction)

Hence our supposition that g : A → P( A) is bijective is wrong. Hence g is

not onto function.

Thus ¿ A∨≠∨P( A)∨¿

Hence the only possibility is

| A|<¿ P( A)∨¿

Hence proved.

Theorem 6.10:- Schroeder – Bernstein Theorem

Statement:-
If α ∧β are two cardinal numbers such that
α ≤ β∧β ≤ α then α =β

Equivalently,
Let X, Y and X 1 be three sets such that X ⊇ Y ⊇ X 1 with X ≈ X 1, then X ≈ Y .
Proof:
Let X, Y and X 1 be three sets such that X ⊇ Y ⊇ X 1
Since X ≈ X1 , then there exist a function f : X→ X 1which is bijective .
Now , since Y ⊆ X. So , the restriction of f to Y is f : Y→ f (Y )
is also bijective . Hence Y ≈ f ( Y )=Y 1

⇒Y ≈ Y1 , where Y 1is a subset of X 1

So we have X ⊇ Y ⊇ X 1 ⊇ Y 1with X ≈ X 1 and Y ≈ Y 1
Since is f : Y→ Y 1 is bijective so its restriction

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 f : X 1 → f ( X 1) is also bijective and hence X 1 ≈ f ( X 1 )=X 2

⇒ X1≈ X2 , where X 2is a subset of Y 1

Hence we have X ⊇ Y ⊇ X 1 ⊇ Y 1 ⊇ X2 with X ≈ X 1 ≈ X 2 and Y ≈ Y 1
Now , since f : X 1 → X 2 is bijective. So its restriction
f : Y 1 → f (Y 1 ) is also bijective and hence Y 1 ≈ f ( Y 1 )=Y 2
⇒Y1 ≈ Y2 , where Y 2is a subset of X 2
Hence , we have X ⊇ Y ⊇ X 1 ⊇ Y 1 ⊇ X2 ⊇ Y 2 with
X ≈ X1 ≈ X2 and Y ≈ Y 1≈ Y 2

Continuing in this way we will have a sequence of sets

X ⊇ Y ⊇ X 1 ⊇ Y 1 ⊇ X 2 ⊇ Y 2 ⊇ X 3 ⊇ Y 3 ⊇… ⊇ X k ⊇ Y k ⊇ … with
X ≈ X 1 ≈ X 2 ≈ X 3 ≈ … ≈ X k ≈ X k +1 ≈ … and
Y ≈ Y 1 ≈ Y 2 ≈ Y 3 ≈ … ≈Y k ≈ Y k +1 ≈ …

Let B = X ∩ Y ∩ X 1 ∩Y 1 ∩ X 2 ∩Y 2 ∩ …
Now we write X and Y as disjoint union.
X = (X¿ ¿ ∪ ¿
Y=¿
Since, X k ≈ X k+1 ; k =0,1,2,3… and X= X 0
Y k ≈ Y k+ 1 ; k =0,1,2,3… and Y= Y 0
with bijections f : X k → X k +1 and f :Y k → Y k+1
Therefore, f : X k {Y ¿ k → X k +1 {Y ¿ k+1 is also bijective.
To prove ≈ Y , we define a function g : X→ Y given by

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 x if x ∈Y k { X ¿k+1 or x∈ B
g(x) =
f(x) if x∈ X k {Y ¿ k ; k = 0,1,2,3…
X = (X¿ ¿ ∪ ¿

Y=¿
Hence g: X→ Y is bijective . So X ≈ Y .

Law of Trichotomy
For any two sets A and B , exactly one is true
| A| ¿ |B| , | A| ¿ |B| , | A| ¿ |B|

Prove that c = 2 ℵ0

Proof:-
Let R be the set of real numbers and let ƿ (Q) be the power set of of the
set Q of rational numbers i.e, the family of subsets of Q. Furthermore,
let the function f : R→ ƿ(Q) be defined by
f (a) = { x : x ∈Q , x< a }
That is , f maps each real number a into the set of rational numbers
less than a . We shall show that f is one-to-one.
Let a , b be two real numbers, a,b ∈ R and a≠ b, say a ¿ b . By property
of the real numbers , there exist a rational number r such that
a¿r¿b
Then r ∈ f(b) and r ∉ f(a) ; hence f(b)≠ f(a). Therefore f is one-to-one.
Thus |R| ≤| ƿ( Q)| . Since, |R|=c and |Q| = ℵ 0 , we have

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 c ≤ 2ℵ 0
……(1)
Now let C(P) be the family of characteristic functions f : P→ { 0 ,1 }
Which is equivalent to ƿ (P) . Here P = { 1 , 2, 3 , … } . Let I = [ 0 , 1 ], the
closed unit interval and let the function F : C(P)→ I be defined by
F(f) = 0.f(1)f(2)f(3)….
As infinite decimal consisting of zeros or ones . Suppose f,g ∈C (P)and
f≠ g. Then the decimals would be different and so F(f) ≠ F(g).
Accordingly, F is one-to-one. Therefore,
| ƿ (Q)| = |C (P)| ≤ I

Since |Q| = ℵ 0 and |I | = c, we have

ℵ0
2 ≤c ……(2)
From 1 and 2
c ¿ 2ℵ 0

Hence, Proved.

Continum Hypothesis
There exist no cardinal number α such that
ℵ 0 ¿ α <¿c or ℵ0 ℵ0
¿ α <2

Cardinal Arithmetic
Addition of Cardinal Numbers
Let α and β be two cardinal numbers of two disjoint sets A and B
respectively, i.e.
α = |A|, β = |B| where A ∩ B = ∅

Then α + β is defined to be the cardinal number of the set A ∪ B. i.e.,

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α + β = |A ∪ B|
e.g. A = {1,2,3,4} B = { 5,6,7}
α = |A |= 4 β = |B| = 3

A ∪ B = { 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 }

|A ∪ B| = 7
α + β = |A ∪ B| = 7

Examples:-
(1) Let m & n be two finite cardinal numbers, then
m = |A|, where A = {a₁, a₂, a₃, …, am},

n = |B|, where B = {b₁, b₂, b₃, …, bn}

Where A ∩ B = ∅, then A ∪ B = {a₁, a₂, a₃, …, am, b₁, b₂, b₃, …, bn}

 |A ∪ B| = m + n
(2) Let n be a finite Cardinal number. Then n + ℵ₀ = ℵ₀.
Since n is a finite Cardinal number. So the corresponding set A
is finite i.e. A = {1, 2, 3, …, n}, |A| = n.
Let B = {n+1, n+2, n+3, …}. Here B being an infinite subset of

⇒ |B| = ℵ₀
P is denumerable.

Now, A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, …, n, n+1, n+2, n+3, …} = P

⇒ |A ∪ B| = ℵ₀
Since A ∩ B = ∅. Therefore,
|A| + |B| = |A ∪ B|
⇒ n + ℵ₀ = ℵ₀

Since A and B are denumerable sets. So |A| = |B| = ℵ₀

3- Let A = {1, 3, 5, ...} and B = {2, 4, 6, ...} be two infinite sets.

Since A ∩ B = ∅, So

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|A| + |B| = |A ∪ B|

⇒ ℵ₀ + ℵ₀ = ℵ₀

4- Let I₁ = [0, ½) and I₂ = [½, 1]

Here,

I₁ ∪ I₂ = ⇒ |I₁ ∪ I₂| = c
|I₁| = |I₂| = c

Since, I₁ ∩ I₂ = ∅, therefore

|I₁| + |I₂| = |I₁ ∪ I₂|

⇒c+c=c

Multiplication of Cardinal Numbers

Let α and β be cardinal numbers and let A and B be sets with α=|A| &
β=|B|. Then the product of α and β is denoted and defined by
αβ = |A×B|
In Cardinal multiplication, A & B need not be disjoint.

Examples:-
1- If A={a₁, a₂, a₃} & B={a₁, a₂} then |A|=3 & |B|=2

A×B = {(a₁, a₁), (a₁, a₂), (a₂, a₁), (a₂, a₂), (a₃, a₁), (a₃, a₂)}
|A×B| = 6 = 2 × 3 = |A| × |B|

2- Since |P| = ℵ ₀, Now, |P×P| = |P|⋅|P| = ℵ ₀⋅ℵ ₀

|P×P| = ℵ ₀⋅ℵ ₀ …(1)

We know that P×P is denumerable. So, |P×P| = ℵ ₀ …(2)

From (1) & (2)
ℵ ₀⋅ℵ ₀ =ℵ ₀

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 3- Since ℝ2 ≈ ℝ => |ℝ2| = |ℝ| => |ℝ2| = c …(1)

Since |ℝ| = c

Now, ℝ² = ℝ×ℝ

So, |ℝ×ℝ| = |ℝ|⋅|ℝ| = c⋅c

 |ℝ²| = c⋅c …(2)

From (1) & (2)

c⋅c = c

Properties of Addition and Multiplication of

Cardinal numbers
Let α, β, γ be three Cardinal numbers. Then
(i) α + (β + γ) = (α + β) + γ

α ⋅ (β ⋅ γ) = (α ⋅ β) ⋅ γ
(ii) α+β=β+γ

(iv) α ⋅ β = β ⋅ α
(iii)
(iv)
(v) α (β + γ) = αβ + αγ
(vi) If α ≤ β, then α + γ ≤ β + γ
(vii) If α ≤ β, then αγ ≤ βγ

Proof:-

let A,B,C be three sets such that A ∩ B = ∅ , B ∩

(i) α + (β + γ) = (α + β) + γ

C = ∅ and A ∩ C = ∅. Let α = |A | , β = |B | and γ

= |C | then α + β = |A U B| , β + γ = |B U C|

Now, α + (β + γ) = |A| + |(B U C)| =|A U (B U C)|

( by using arithmetic property of cardnality for addition )

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since A ∩ (B U C) = (A ∩ B)∪ (A ∩ C) = ∅

= |(A U B) U C| since A U (B U C) = (A U B) U C

⇒ α + (β + γ) = (α + β) + γ
= |A U B| + |C|

(ii) α+β=β+α
Let A and B be two disjoint sets and let |A| = α, |
B| = β
Now, α + β = |A| + |B| = |A U B|

( by using arithmetic property of cardnality for addition )

= |B U A| since A U B = B U A

⇒α+β=β+γ
=β+α

(iii) α ⋅ (β ⋅ γ) = (α ⋅ β) ⋅ γ
Let A, B, C be three sets such that |A| = α, |B| = β,

Then β ⋅ γ = |B x C|, α ⋅ β = |A x B|
|C| = γ

Now, α ⋅ (β ⋅ γ) = |A| ⋅ |(B x C)| = |A x (B x C)|

( by using arithmetic property of cardnality for multiplication )

= |(A x B) x C| = (αβ) ⋅ γ
⇒ α ⋅ (β ⋅ γ) = (α ⋅ β) ⋅ γ
(iv) α·β = β·α
Let A, B be two sets such that |A| = α, |B| = β then α·β = |A×B|,
β·α = |B×A|.
Here, we prove that (A×B) ≈ (B×A).
For this, we define a function f: A×B → B×A given by,
f(a, b) = (b, a).
To show that f is one-to-one

⇒ (b₁, a₁) = (b₂, a₂)

let f(a₁, b₁) = f(a₂, b₂)

⇒ b₁ = b₂ and a₁ = a₂
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 ⇒ (a₁, b₁) = (a₂, b₂)
Hence, f is one-to-one.

for each (b, a) ∈ B×A, ∃(a, b) ∈ A×B such that f(a, b) = (b,
To show that f is onto

a).
Hence, f is bijective.

⇒|A×B| = |B×A|
Therefore, A×B ≈ B×A

⇒α·β = β·α.
(v) α ⋅ (β + γ) = α ⋅ β + α ⋅ γ
Let A, B, C be three sets such that B ∩ C = ∅,
then β +γ =¿|B ∪ C|
Now, α ⋅ (β + γ) = |A × (B ∪ C)| = |(A × B) ∪ (A × C)|
= |A × B| + |A × C| (∵ (A × B) ∩ (A × C) = A × (B ∩ C) = ∅)
⇒ α ⋅ (β + γ) = α ⋅ β + α ⋅ γ

Let A, B, C be three sets such that A ∩ C = ∅ and B ∩ C = ∅

(vi) If α ≤ β, then α + γ ≤ β + γ

Since α ≤ β, then ∃ a function f: A → B which is injective.

Let α = |A|, β = |B|, γ = |C|

Now, α + γ = |A ∪ C|, β + γ = |B ∪ C|
To prove α + γ ≤ β + γ, we define a function g: A ∪ C → B ∪ C
by
g (x) ={f (xxif) ifx x∈C∈ A
Now, f is injective and g(x) = x being the identity function is

Hence |A ∪ C| ≤ |B ∪ C| ⇒ α + γ ≤ β + γ
bijective. Therefore, g is injective.

(vii) If α ≤ β, then α⋅γ ≤ β⋅γ

Let A, B, C be three sets s.t. α = |A|, β = |B| and γ
= |C|.

Since α ≤ β, then ∃ a function f: A → B which is

Then α⋅γ = |A x C|, β⋅γ = |B x C|

injective.
To prove α⋅γ ≤ β⋅γ, define a function g: A x C →
B x C by

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 g(a, c) = (f(a), c)
g is one-one because

⇒ (f(a₁), c₁) = (f(a₂), c₂)

g(a₁, c₁) = g(a₂, c₂)

⇒ f(a₁) = f(a₂), c₁ = c₂
⇒ a₁ = a₂, c₁ = c₂
⇒ (a₁, c₁) = (a₂, c₂)

⇒ α⋅γ ≤ β⋅γ
Hence, g is one-one. So |A x C| ≤ |B x C|

Theorem
Let α and β be nonzero cardinal numbers such that β is infinite and
α < β. Then,
α + β = αβ = β.
That is, given two nonzero cardinal numbers, at least one of which is
infinite, there sum or
product is simply the larger of the two.
This property holds for cardinal arithmetic under the conditions

1. Cardinal Addition:-
If α < β, where β is infinite, then cardinal addition α + β = β. This is
because adding a smaller cardinal α to an infinite cardinal β does not
change the size of the infinite set β. In terms of set theory, adding a
finite or countably infinite set (or any set of cardinality less than or
equal to β) to a set of cardinality β still results in a set of cardinality β.
2. Cardinal Multiplication:-
Similarly, for cardinal multiplication, if α < β and β is infinite, then
α.β =β. This holds because multiplying an infinite cardinal β by any

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cardinal α < β results in a set of cardinality β. In other words,
multiplying by a smaller cardinal (even if it’s infinite, as long as it’s
less than or equal to β) does not “increase” the size of the infinite
cardinal.
Thus, for non-zero cardinal numbers α and β, where β is infinite and
α < β , we have:
Α + β = β and α.β = β
This is a well-known result in set theory, particularly in cardinal
arithmetic.

Exponents and Cardinal Numbers

If A and B are sets, then,
AB
denotes the sets of all functions from B (the exponent) into A. This
notations comes from the fact that if A and B are finite sets, say,
|A| = m and |B| = n, then there are mn functions from B into A. This is
illustrated in the next example, where |A| = 2 and |B| = 3.

Example :-

Let A = {1 , 2} and B = {x , y , z}. Then A^B consists of exactly

eight functions, which follow:
{ (x,1) , (y,1) , ( z,1) }, { (x,1) , (y,1) , (z,2) }, { (x,1) , (y,2) , (z,1) },
{ (x,1) , (y,2) , (z,2) }, { (x,2) , (y,1) , (z,1) }, { (x,2) , (y,1) , (z,2) },

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 { (x,2) , (y,2) , (z,1) } , { (x,2) , (y,2) , (z,2) }.
That is, there are 2 choices for x, 2 choices for y, 2 choices for z, and
hence there are 2^3 = 8 functions altogether.
Exponents are introduced into the arithmetic of cardinal numbers in
the next definition and, as illustrated above, this definition agrees with
the case when A and B are finite sets.

Definition :- Let α and β be cardinal numbers and let A and B be

sets with α = |A| and β = |B|. Then α to the power β is denoted and
defined by
α
β
= | A B|
Remark:- Previously, if α = |A|, then we used the exponent notation
2 = |P(A)| where P(A) is the power set (collection of all subsets) of a
α

set A. Note that there is a one-to-one correspondence between the

subsets X of A and functions f: A → {0, 1} as follows:

f(a) = {1if0 if xx ∈∉ AA
Thus there is no contradiction between the two notations.

Theorem :- Let α, β, γ be cardinal numbers. Then:

(1) α
β+γ
=α α β γ

(2) (αβ ) = α γ β γ
γ

(3) (α β ¿ ¿ γ = α βγ
(4) If α ≤ β thenα γ ≤ β
γ

Proof:-
(1) α β + γ = α β αγ

B∩C = ∅, then β+γ = |B∪C|

Let α, β, γ be cardinal numbers of sets A, B, C respectively, with

α
β+γ
= | AB∪C |

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then α β ⋅ α γ = | A Bx AC |
Now, α β = | A B|, α γ = | AC |

Note that A B ∪ C is the family of all functions from B ∪ C to A. A Bis the

family of all functions from B to A and AC is the family of all functions
from C to A.

Now to prove α β + γ = α β ⋅ α γ we have to prove that A

B ∪C
≈ A Bx A C

Now, we define a function F : A

B∪C
→A x
B
A
C

For this let, ∅ ∈ A B ∪CThen∅ is a function from B∪C to A. Now, the

restrictions of ∅ to the sets B and C denoted by ∅ ∨¿ B ¿and ∅ ∨¿ C ¿
respectively are the functions from B to A and from C to A
respectively, and hence
(∅ ∨¿ B ,∅ ∨¿C ¿ ¿ ) ∈ A
B
x A
C

Now, we define F by
F(ϕ) = (∅ ∨¿ B ,∅ ∨¿C ¿ ¿ ) → (1)
Now, we show that F is one-one and onto.
To prove F is one-one. Let,

F(∅ 1) = F(∅ 2); ∅ 1,∅ 2 ∈ A

B ∪C

⇒ (∅ 1∨¿ B ,∅ 1∨¿ C ¿ ¿ ) = (∅ 2∨¿ B ,∅ 2∨¿ C ¿ ¿ )

⇒ ∅ 1∨¿ B ¿ = ∅ 2∨¿ B ¿ , ∅ 1∨¿C ¿ = ∅ 2∨¿c ¿

⇒ ∅ 1(b) = ∅ 2 (b) ∀ b ∈ B & ∅ 1(c) = ∅ 2 (c) ∀ c∈C

⇒ ∅ 1 (x) = ∅ 2 (x) ∀ x ∈ B∪C

⇒ ∅ 1 = ∅ 2 (F is one-one)
Now, to prove F is onto.

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Let y ∈ Aᴮ × Aᶜ ⇒ y = (f, g) where f is a function from B to A and g
is a function from C to A.
Now, with the help of f & g, we define a function
Ψ: BUC → A

Since B∩C = ∅, so, we can define ψ as

which will be the extension of both f & g.

{ f ( x)if x ∈ B
ψ(x) = g ( x)if x ∈ C
Here ψ ∈ A B ∪C and hence

⇒ (ψ|B, ψ|C) = (f, g) = y → (2)

ψ|B = f & ψ|C = g

By eq. (1) F(ψ) = (ψ|B, ψ|C)

F(ψ) = y (By eq.(2))
Hence, F is onto.

⇒ | A B ∪ C| = | A Bx AC ∨¿
Therefore, A B ∪C ≈ A Bx AC

⇒ α β+ γ = α β⋅ α γ
( 2 ) ( αβ) γ = α γ βγ

then αβ = |A × B| ⇒ (αβ)ᵞ = |(A × B)ᶜ|

Let α, β, γ be cardinal numbers of sets A, B, C respectively.

αᵞ = |Aᶜ|, βᵞ = |Bᶜ| ⇒ αᵞβᵞ = |Aᶜ × Bᶜ|

Note that (A × B)c is the family of all functions from C to (A × B). Ac
is the family of all functions from C to A and Bc is the family of all
functions from C to B.
Now, to prove (αβ)ᵞ = αᵞβᵞ, we have to prove that (A × B)ᶜ ≈ Aᶜ × Bᶜ
For this, we define a function F: (A × B)ᶜ → Aᶜ × Bᶜ given by.

F(f) = (g, h); f ∈(A × B)ᶜ => f: C → A × B

F(c) = (g(c ) , h( c ) )
Now, we show that F is one-one and onto.
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To show that F is one-one:

Let F(f₁) = F(f₂) ; f₁, f₂ ∈ (A × B)ᶜ

=> (g₁, h₁) = (g₂, h₂)

=> g₁ = g₂, h₁ = h₂

=> g₁( c ) = g₂( c ) , h₁( c ) = h₂( c )

=> (g₁( c ), h₁( c ) ) = (g₂( c ) , h₂( c ) )

=> f₁( c ) = f₂ (c )

=> f₁ = f₂
Hence, F is one-one.
To show that F is onto:

Clearly, for each (g, h) ∈ Aᶜ × Bᶜ, ∃ some f ∈ (A × B)ᶜ s.t.

F(f) = (g, h)
Hence, F is onto.
Therefore, (A × B)ᶜ ≈ Aᶜ × Bᶜ
=> |(A × B)ᶜ | = | Aᶜ × Bᶜ |
=> (αβ )γ = α γ β γ
(3) (α β ¿ ¿ γ = α βγ

then β . γ = |B × C | ⇒ α βγ =| A B ×C | and
Let α, β, γ be cardinal numbers of sets A, B, C respectively.

α = | A | ⇒ (α ¿ ¿ = | ( A ¿¿ |
β B β γ B C

Note that A Bis the family of all functions from B to A

i.e. { g : g : C→ A B } i.e. g(c) = f
and A B ×C is the family of all functions from B× A to A
i.e. { h : h : B×C→ A } i.e. h(b,c) = a
Now to prove (α β ¿ ¿ γ = α βγ ,

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 we have to prove that
( A¿¿ B) ¿ ≈ A B ×C
C

For this, we define a function F: ( A¿¿ B)C ¿ → A B ×C given by.

F(g) = h; ∀ g∈( A¿¿ B)C ¿

Now, we show that F is one-one and onto.
To show that F is one-one:

Let F(g₁) = F(g₂) ; f₁, f₂ ∈ : ( A¿¿ B)C ¿

=> (g₁, h₁) = (g₂, h₂)

=> h₁ = h₂

=>h₁( b,c ) = h₂( b,c )

=> a1 = a2

=> f(b₁) = f (b2)

=> f₁ = f₂

=> g₁(c) = g₂ (c )

=> g₁ = g₂
Hence, F is one-one.
To show that F is onto:

Clearly, for each h ∈ A

B ×C
, ∃ some fg∈ ( A¿¿ B)C ¿ s.t.
F(g) = h
Hence, F is onto.
Therefore, ( A¿¿ B)C ¿ ≈ A
B ×C

=> |( A¿¿ B)C ¿ | = | A

B ×C
|
=> (α β ¿ ¿ γ = α βγ
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 (4) If α ≤ β thenα γ ≤ β γ
Let α, β, γ be cardinal numbers of sets A, B, C respectively.
Since, α ≤ β then there exist a function g: A→B which is injective (one-
one).
Now αᵞ = |Aᶜ| and βᵞ = |Bᶜ|
Note that Ac is the family of all functions from C to A
i.e. { g : g : C→ A }
Similarly, BCis the family of all functions from C to B
i.e. { h : h : C→ B }
Now to prove α γ ≤ β γ
we have to prove that
|Ac| ≤ | Bc|
For this, we define a function F: Ac→Bc given by.

F(g) = h; ∀ g∈ Ac

Since h∈ Bc => h : C → B i.e. h(x) ∈ B and g : A → B i.e. g(x) ∈

B

Now,let F(g₁) = F(g₂) ; g₁, g₂ ∈ Ac

 h (x ) = g( x )

=> h₁ = h₂

=> h₁(x) = h₂ (x )

=> g₁(x) = g₂ (x )

=> g₁ = g₂
Hence, F is one-one.
Therefore , |Ac| ≤ | Bc|
γ γ
α ≤ β

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EXAMPLE :- Using the rules for exponentiation we can make the
following calculations:
(1) c
ℵ°
= (2ℵ ¿ ¿ℵ = 2ℵ ℵ since (α β ¿ ¿ γ = α βγ
° ° ° °

= 2ℵ since ℵ ° . ℵ ° = ℵ °
°

=c
( 2) cc = (2ℵ ¿ ¿c = 2ℵ c since (α β ¿ ¿ γ = α βγ
° °

= 2c since ℵ ° . c = c

Questions
Q no 1:- Let { A i :i ∈ I } be any family of sets. Define a family of
sets { Bi :i∈ I } such that
I. Bihas the same cardinality as Ai for all i∈ I ( Bi ≈ Ai ¿
II. The sets Bi are pairwise disjoint ( Bi ∩ B j = ∅ for i≠ j ¿
Solution:- Bi ≈ Ai

Given a family of sets { A i :i∈ I }

Let Bi= Ai × {i } this means each element of Bi is an ordered pair where
the first element comes from Ai and the second element is the index i.
Let the function f : Ai → Bi defined by f(a) = (a,i)
One-to-one:
Let a,b ∈ A i for all i ∈ I then
f(a) = f(b)
↔ (a,i) = (b,i)
↔ a = b
Hence , f is one - to – one.

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Onto:
For each element (a,i) ∈ Bi, there exist an element a ∈ Ai such that
f(a) = (a,i) for all i ∈ I
hence, the function is onto.
The function f is bijective so Bi ≈ Ai ( Bi has the same cardinality as Ai
for all i∈ I
Disjointness
Suppose there exist an element x in the intersection of Bi and B j
where i≠ j .
Then x = (a,i) for some a ∈ A i and x = (b,j) for some b ∈ A j
This implies (a,i) = (b,j) which means a = b and i = j
Since , i≠ j , this is a contradiction.
Therefore, Bi ∩ B j = ∅ for i≠ j
The family of sets { Bi : i ∈ I }, where Bi= Ai × {i } satisfies the required
properties.
Q no 2:- Prove that if α is any infinite cardinal number, then
ℵ₀ + α = α.
Proof:- Let α be any infinite cardinal number.
There are two cases:

Α = ℵ₀
Α ≠ ℵ₀
(i)
(ii)
Case-I:

If α = ℵ₀, then ℵ₀ + ℵ₀ = ℵ₀ ⇒ ℵ₀ + α = α
Case-II:

If α ≠ ℵ₀, i.e., α is not the cardinal number of a denumerable set.

So, let A be an infinite set (non-denumerable) such that α = |A|.

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We know that every infinite set contains a subset which is
denumerable. Since A is an infinite set. So A also contains a subset B
which is denumerable. Then A\B ~ A.
 |A\B| = |A| => |A\B| = α
Now, A can be written as union of disjoint sets. A
A = (A\B) U B B

=> |A| = |(A\B) U B|

=> |A| = |A\B| + |B|

=> α = α + ℵ₀

=> ℵ₀ + α = α

Q no 3:- Prove that ℵ₀⋅C = C

Proof:- Let Z be the set of integers and A=[0,1), the half-open
interval, and R be the set of real numbers. Then

|Z| = ℵ₀, |A| = C, |R| = C

To prove ℵ₀⋅C = C, it is shown that Z×A ≈ R.

For this,we define a function
F: Z×A → R
Given by,

f(n, a) = n + a ; where n ∈ Z & a ∈ A.

First, we show that f is one-to-one.
Let,

f(n₁, a₁) = f(n₂, a₂) ; n₁, n₂ ∈ Z

=> n₁ + a₁ = n₂ + a₂ ; a₁, a₂ ∈ A

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=> n₁ - n₂ = a₂ - a₁ → (1)

Since a₁, a₂ ∈ A = [0, 1)

=>0 ≤ a₁ < 1 → (2)

=>0 ≤ a₂ < 1 => -1 < -a₂ ≤ 0 → (3)

Adding (2) & (3)

-1 < a₁ - a₂ < 1 → (4)

The left hand side of eq.(1) being the difference of the two integers is
an integer. So its right hand side is also an integer i.e. (a₂ - a₁ ) is an
integer. Hence (a1 – a2) is also an integer and from (4), we have

a1 – a2 is an integerand lying between -1 and 1

Therefore a1 – a2 = 0

 a1 = a2
Hence from eq(1) , we have

n₁ - n₂ = 0

 n1 = n2
Hence (n₁, a₁) = (n₂, a₂)
Thus f(n₁, a₁) = f(n₂, a₂) implies (n₁, a₁) = (n₂, a₂)
So, f is one-one.
Now, we show that f is onto.
We can write ZxA as,
ZxA= ¿ n ∈ Z {n }× A
.…{-4}xA∪{-3}xA∪{-2}xA∪{-1}A∪{0}xA∪{1}xA∪{2}xA∪…
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
)[ )[ )[ )[ )[ )[ )[ )[
25
 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Here, f is onto because each {n}xA is map onto the interval [n, n+1)
under the function f ¿ n ∈ Z ¿= R
Hence, f is onto. Thus, f is bijective.
Therefore, ZxA ≈ R

⇒ |ZxA|=|R|

⇒ ℵ₀⋅C = C

Q no 4:- If A and B are denumerable then A×B is denumerable.

Deduce that ℵ ° . ℵ ° = ℵ °
Proof:- Let A and B be denumerable sets.
Then A ≈ N and B ≈ N
Then A×B ≈ N×N
Since N×N is Denumerable. Therefore A×B is denumerable
|A| = ℵ °, |B| = ℵ °, A×B = ℵ °
By definition of the product of cardinal numbers
|A×B| = |A||B|
¿> ℵ ° . ℵ° = ℵ°

Q no 5:- Let A₁, A₂, A₃, A₄ be any sets. Define sets B₁, B₂, B₃, B₄
such that

|A₁| + |A₂| + |A₃| + |A₄| = |B₁∪B₂∪B₃∪B₄|

Solution:- Let A₁, A₂, A₃, A₄ be any sets.

Define

B₁ = A₁ × {1}
26
B₂ = A₂ × {2}

B₃ = A₃ × {3}

B₄ = A₄ × {4}
Then Bk ≈ Ak for k=1,2,3,4
Also the Bk are disjoint ,

That is Bᵢ ∩ Bⱼ = ∅ if i≠j
Consequently

|A₁| + |A₂| + |A₃| + |A₄| = |B₁ ∪ B₂ ∪ B₃ ∪ B₄|

e.g. A₁ = {1,2}, A₂ = {2,3,4}, A₃ = {3,4,5}, A₄ = {6}

B₁ = {1,2} × {1} = {(1,1), (2,1)} ¿> ¿ B₁ ≈ A₁

B₂ = {2,3,4} × {2} = {(2,2), (3,2) (4,2)} ¿> ¿ B₂ ≈ A₂

B₃ = {3,4,5} × {3} = {(3,3), (4,3), (5,3)} ¿> ¿ B₃ ≈ A₃

B₄ = {6} × {4} = { (6,4)} ¿> ¿ B₄ ≈ A₄

B₁ ∪ B₂ ∪ B₃ ∪ B₄ = {(1,1), (2,1), (2,2), (3,2), (3,3), (4,2),(4,3),

(5,3), (6,4)}
|B₁ ∪ B₂ ∪ B₃ ∪ B₄| = 9
|A₁| + |A₂| + |A₃| + |A₄| = 2+3+3+1 = 9
¿> ¿|A₁| + |A₂| + |A₃| + |A₄| = |B₁ ∪ B₂ ∪ B₃ ∪ B₄| = 9

REFRENCES
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