Define/what is meant with Crossing symmetry, detailed

balance, matter/antimatter symmetry. Invariance of the laws

of physics, inertial reference frame.
Sol
Crossing symmetry: is known to occur. Any of these particles can be
'crossed' over to the other side of the equation, provided it is turned
into its antiparticle, and the resulting interaction will also be allowed.
For example:

there is one important caveat in all this: conservation of energy may

veto a reaction that is otherwise permissible.
detailed balance: When the reverse reaction occurs
𝐶 + 𝐷 → 𝐴 + B This called the principle of detailed balance.
matter/antimatter symmetry:
our world is populated with protons, neutrons, and electrons instead of
antiprotons, antineutrons, and positrons.
 If a particle meets its antiparticle, they annihilate.
 In our corner of the universe: more matter than antimatter.
 Presumably there are other regions of space in which antimatter
predominates.
Invariance of the laws of physics:
Laws of physics should not depend on what coordinate system.
inertial reference frame:
the stationary or moving with a constant speed coordinates describing
the position of a free classical particle.
1-Give a short account about the fundamental forces in
nature?
Force Strength Theory Mediator
Strong 10 Chromodynamics Gluon
Electromagnetic 10−2 Electrodynamics Photon
Weak 10−13 Flavordynamics W and Z
Gravitational 10−42 Geometrodynamics Graviton

2- Discuss Thomson discovery of the electron.

Thomson knew that cathode rays emitted by a hot filament could be
deflected by a magnet. This suggested that they carried electric charge;
in fact, the direction of the curvature required that the charge be
negative. It seemed, therefore, that these were not rays at all, but
rather streams of particles. By passing the beam through crossed
electric and magnetic fields, and adjusting the field strength until the
net deflection was zero, Thomson was able to determine the velocity of
the particles (about a tenth the speed of light) as well as their charge-
to-mass ratio. This ratio turned out to be greater than for any known
ion, indicating either that the charge was extremely large or the mass
was very small. Thomson called the particles corpuscles.
3- Discuss Bohr’s model for hydrogen atom and explain how
Chadwick’s discovery of the neutron solved a major problem
with it?
In 1914 Niels Bohr proposed a model for hydrogen consisting of a single
electron circling the proton, rather like a planet going around the sun,
held in orbit by the mutual attraction of opposite charges. Using a
primitive version of the quantum theory, Bohr was able to calculate the
spectrum of hydrogen, and the agreement with experiment was
nothing short of spectacular. It was natural then to suppose that the
nuclei of heavier atoms were composed of two or more protons bound
together, supporting a like number of orbiting electrons. Unfortunately,
the next heavier atom (helium), although it does indeed carry two
electrons, weighs four times as much as hydrogen, and lithium (three
electrons) is seven times the weight of hydrogen, and so it goes. This
dilemma was finally resolved in 1932 with Chadwick's discovery of the
neutron - an electrically neutral twin to the proton. The helium nucleus,
it turns out, contains two neutrons in addition to the two protons;
lithium evidently includes four; and, in general, the heavier nuclei carry
very roughly the same number of neutrons as protons. (The number of
neutrons is in fact somewhat flexible - the same atom, chemically
speaking, may come in several different isotopes, all with the same
number of protons, but with varying numbers of neutrons.)
4- Discuss Planck and Einstein work in regard to their
contribution to electromagnetic radiation.
In 1900. Planck was attempting to explain the so-called blackbody
spectrum for the electromagnetic radiation emitted by a hot object.
Statistical mechanics, which had proved brilliantly successful in
explaining other thermal processes. he assumed that electromagnetic
radiation is quantized, coming in little 'packages' of energy
𝐸 = ℎ𝑣, ℎ = 6.626 × 10−27 erg s
Planck did not profess to know why the radiation was quantized; he
assumed that it was due to a peculiarity in the emission process: for
some reason a hot surface only gives off light" in little squirts.
Einstein, in 1905, put forward a far more radical view. That quantization
was a feature of the electromagnetic field itself, having nothing to do
with the emission mechanism. With this new twist, Einstein adapted
Planck's idea, and his formula, to explain the photoelectric effect:
𝐸 ≤ ℎ𝑣 – W
Where losing in the process an energy w (the so-called work function
of the material).
5- What are the main outlines of Yukawa’s theory to explain
the force responsible for holding the nucleus together?
Explain why mesons represent a major obstacle to this theory.
The first significant theory of the strong force was proposed by Yukawa
in 1934:
Yukawa assumed that the proton and neutron are attracted to one
another by some sort of field, just as the electron is attracted to the
nucleus by an electric field and the moon to the earth by a gravitational
field. This field should properly be quantized, and Yukawa asked the
question: what must be the properties of its quantum - the particle
(analogous to the photon) whose exchange would account for the
known features of the strong force? For example, the short range of the
force indicated that the mediator would be rather heavy; Yukawa
calculated that its mass should be nearly 300 times that of the electron,
or about in sixth the mass of a proton. Because it fell between the
electron and the proton, Yukawa's particle came to be known as the
meson (meaning 'middle-weight'). In the same spirit, the electron is
called a lepton ('light-weight'), whereas the proton and neutron are
baryons (‘heavy-weight'). Now, Yukawa knew that no such particle had
ever been observed in the laboratory, and he therefore assumed his
theory was wrong.
mesons represent a major obstacle to this theory because Meson: never
observed in the laboratory and
 in 1937: Studies of cosmic rays (some disagreement)
 in 1946 cosmic ray particles interacted very weakly with atomic
nuclei
 If meson, the interaction should have been dramatic.
 The puzzle was finally resolved in 1947: discovery of two middle-
weight particles in 𝜋 (pion) and 𝜇 (muon, lighter and long lived) 
The Yukawa meson is pion.
6-Discuss the Dirac's description of free electrons with energy
given by the relativistic formula and what is the current
description and how Anderson's discovery of the positron
helped to understand it.
The Dirac equation was supposed to describe free electrons with
energy given by the relativistic formula:

But it had a very troubling feature: for every positive-energy solution it

admitted a corresponding solution with negative energy.
This meant that, given the natural tendency of every system to evolve
in the direction of lower energy, the electron should 'runaway' to
increasingly negative states, radiating off an infinite amount of energy
in the process. To rescue his equation, he postulated that the negative-
energy states are all filled by an infinite 'sea' of electrons. Because this
sea is always there, and perfectly uniform, it exerts no net force on
anything, and we are not normally aware of it.
Dirac then invoked the Pauli exclusion principle (which says that no two
electrons can occupy the same state), to 'explain' why the electrons we
do observe are confined to the positive.
in 1931, with Anderson's discovery of the positron, a positively charged
twin for the electron, with precisely the attributes Dirac required.
7-Give a short account on strange particles.
are produced by the strong force (the same one that holds the nucleus
together) and decay by the weak force (the one that accounts for beta
decay and all other neutrino processes)., where Strangeness that (like
charge, lepton number, and baryon number) is conserved in any strong
interaction, but is not conserved in a weak interaction. In a pion-proton
collision, for example, we might produce two strange particles:

when these particles decay, strangeness is not conserve:

8- Draw and discuss the baryon octet.

9- Draw and discuss the meson octet.

10-Draw and discuss the triangular array incorporating 10

heavier baryons.
11- Sketch the Feynman diagram representing Bhabha
scattering.

12- Sketch the Feynman diagram representing electron-

positron pair annihilation.
13- Sketch the Feynman diagram representing 𝑢-𝑢̅ pair
annihilation.
producing two photons If the quarks were bound together in the form
of a meson .

14- Sketch the Feynman diagram representing electron-

positron pair production.
15- Compare between QED and QCD regarding the type of
charge, color, mediating particle, and the coupling constant in
each vertex in Feynman diagram.
QED QCD
Charge 2 electric charge (+, -) 3 color (red- green –
℮ → ℮ + 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 blue) and also anti-
Photon: Dose not color.
carry electric charge. 𝑞 → 𝑞 + 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑜𝑛
Gluon Carries 2 color
charge.
Where Gluons are
'bicolored', carrying
one positive unit of
color and one
negative unit.
8 gluons carry color
and anticolor.
color (like charge) is
always conserved.
color of the quark
(but not its flavor)
may change.

Mediating particle Force between 2 e’s is Force between 2 q’s is

"mediated" by the "mediated" by the
exchange of photons. exchange of gluons.
Coupling constant Each vertex Each vertex
in each vertex in introduces a factor of introduces a factor of
Feynman diagram  = 1/137. S > 1.
Only consider The more complex
Feynman diagrams diagrams contribute
with a small number more and more
of vertices. Coupling constant is
in not constant but
depends on the
distance between the
interacting particles.
Asymptotic Freedom:
At large distances, it
is big.
At very short
distances (< size of a
proton), it becomes
quite small.

16-What are the possibilities for gluon color?

Gluons are 'bicolored', carrying one positive unit of color and one
negative unit. 3 × 3 = 9 possibilities but only 8.
17-Discuss effect on the QCD coupling due to the competition
between quark polarization and gluon polarization.
There occurs a kind of competition between
1- Quark polarization diagrams (which drive 𝛼𝑠 up at short distances)
which depends on the number of quarks in the theory (number of
flavors, f).
2- Gluon polarization (which drives it down) which depends on the
number of gluons (number of colors, n).

positive, the effective coupling increases at short distances.

negative, the coupling decreases.
QCD coupling decreases at short distances. This is the origin of
asymptotic freedom.
18- Explain why isolated quark cannot be found assuming we
are trying to separate u quark from the constituents of a
proton. What would be the end result?
quarks can only exist in the form of colorless combinations. Presumably
this proof will take the form of a demonstration that the potential
energy increases without limit as the quarks are pulled farther and
farther apart, so that it would require an infinite energy (or at any rate,
enough to create new quark-antiquark pairs) to separate them
completely.
19-Draw the particle’s classification including baryons,
photons, quarks, fermions, mesons, bosons, and hadrons.
Which type of interaction(s)/force(s) can these particles
participate in.

20- Give a summary of the week interaction and its mediators.

Where: Electric charge produces electromagnetic forces and color
produces strong forces.
Leptons have no color so no strong interactions. Neutrinos have no
charge so no em forces. All join in the weak interactions. Quarks and all
leptons carry “week charge”.
Week Interactions: Charged (mediated by the W's) and Neutral
(mediated by the Z).
Fundamental charged vertex:
- ve lepton (e  ,   , or   ) converts into the corresponding neutrino,
with emission of a W (or absorption of a W+ ).

Fundamental neutral vertex:

Any lepton (including )  neutrino-electron scattering.

Neutral week interaction masked by much stronger em effects.

21-Sketch the Feynman diagram representing the decay Δ0 →
𝑝+ + 𝜋− in both week and strong interaction. Note that Δ0, p, 𝜋−
consist of ddu, udu, and du quarks, respectively.

Weak interaction. Strong interaction.

22-What are the rules that can be used to determine whether
the decay is governed by em, week, or strong process? Give
example in each case.
if a photon comes out, the process is em.
if a neutrino emerges, the process is weak.
if neither a photon nor a neutrino is present, it's a hard to say.
23-Write the Lorentz transformation for a frame moving with
respect to the original frame with velocity v along the x
direction.

24- Using Lorentz transformation, discuss the relativity of

simultaneity.
If two events occur at the same time in S, but at different locations,
then they do not occur at the same time in S’.
tA = tB
25- Using Lorentz transformation, discuss Lorentz contraction.

26-Using Lorentz transformation, discuss time dilation.

27-Using Lorentz transformation, discuss velocity addition.

28-Discuss the conservation of energy and momentum in
classical and relativistic collision.
29-Discuss this statement: “Every symmetry of nature yields a
conservation law”.