ASSIGNMENT-3 (DCCN)

PART-1
1. Purpose of a Repeater in a Network:
A repeater is a network device that regenerates and amplifies weak network signals over
long distances. It helps extend the range of a network by receiving, amplifying, and
retransmitting data without modifying it.
2.Concept of Supernetting:
Supernetting, also known as route aggregation, combines multiple IP networks into a
larger network to reduce the size of routing tables. It merges contiguous IP subnets with a
common prefix to create a single, larger address block. It is often used in CIDR (Classless
Inter-Domain Routing).
3.Difference between a Bridge and a Switch:
 A Bridge operates at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) and connects two or more
network segments, filtering traffic based on MAC addresses.
 A Switch also operates at Layer 2 but is more advanced, managing traffic within a
LAN using MAC address tables for efficient data forwarding. It provides higher port
density and better performance.
4.Definition of Subnet in Networking:
A subnet is a logical subdivision of an IP network. It breaks a larger network into smaller,
manageable segments, improving performance and security. Subnets are defined by
subnet masks, which determine the network and host portions of an IP address.
5. Role of a Router in a Network:
A router is a device that connects multiple networks, directing data packets between
them. It determines the best path for data transmission using IP addresses and routing
protocols, enabling communication between different network segments.
6. Internetworking in the Context of the Internet:
Internetworking refers to connecting multiple networks to form a larger network, such as
the Internet. It enables communication between different network types using routing
protocols and standardized protocols like TCP/IP.
7.What are Datagrams?
A datagram is a basic transfer unit in packet-switched networks, used in connectionless
protocols like UDP. It consists of a header containing routing information and payload
data, but delivery is not guaranteed.
8.What is Time-to-Live (TTL) or Packet Lifetime?
TTL is a value in a packet's header that limits its lifespan in a network. Each router that
forwards the packet decreases the TTL by 1. When TTL reaches zero, the packet is
discarded, preventing infinite loops.
9.What is Masking?
Masking refers to the process of using a subnet mask to separate the network and host
portions of an IP address. It determines which part of an IP address identifies the network
and which part identifies the host.
10.IPV4 Address 129.13.27.29 Class:
The IP address 129.13.27.29 belongs to Class B (Range: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255). In
Class B, the first two octets represent the network, and the last two represent the host.
 PART-2
1. How does a Switch Differ from a Bridge in Terms of Functionality and
Performance?
o Functionality:
 A bridge connects two or more network segments at the Data Link
Layer (Layer 2) and filters traffic based on MAC addresses. It
forwards or blocks traffic based on MAC address tables.
 A switch is a multi-port bridge with higher efficiency. It can connect
multiple devices within a LAN, using MAC address tables for direct
data forwarding. It intelligently manages traffic by sending data only
to the intended recipient.
o Performance:
 Switches are faster than bridges because they have dedicated ports
for each device, reducing network collisions.
 Bridges handle traffic one frame at a time, leading to potential
bottlenecks in busy networks. Switches, however, can handle
multiple frames simultaneously.
2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Using a Hub in a Network:
o Advantages:
 Simple and inexpensive device for small networks.
 Easy to install and configure.
o Disadvantages:
 Broadcasts data to all connected devices, leading to unnecessary
traffic.
 Does not support traffic management, security, or collision
reduction.
 Poor performance in larger networks due to data flooding.
 Outdated compared to modern devices like switches.
3. How Does the Network Layer Facilitate Internetworking in TCP/IP
Architecture?
The network layer (Layer 3) in the TCP/IP model is responsible for routing data
across networks. It facilitates internetworking by:
o Routing: Determines the best path for data to travel from source to
destination using IP addresses.
o Logical Addressing: Assigns IP addresses to devices for unique
identification.
o Fragmentation and Reassembly: Breaks large packets into smaller
fragments for transmission and reassembles them at the destination.
o Packet Forwarding: Forwards packets between different networks using
routing protocols.
4. Short Notes on Routers and Gateways:
o Routers:
 Network devices that route data packets between networks using IP
addresses.
 Determine optimal paths for data transmission based on routing
protocols (e.g., RIP, OSPF).
 Operate at Layer 3 (Network Layer) of the OSI model.
 o Gateways:
 Act as entry and exit points in a network, connecting different
network protocols.
 Convert data between different protocols (e.g., TCP/IP to IPX/SPX).
 Operate at multiple OSI layers, from the Application to Network
Layer.
5. Discuss the Use of Networking Devices: Repeaters, Hubs, and Switches:
o Repeaters:
 Extend network range by amplifying and retransmitting signals.
 Operate at Layer 1 (Physical Layer) and lack traffic management
capabilities.
o Hubs:
 Simple devices for connecting multiple network devices in a LAN.
 Broadcast data to all connected devices, leading to network
congestion.
 Operate at Layer 1 (Physical Layer).
o Switches:
 Intelligent devices that connect multiple devices in a LAN.
 Use MAC addresses to forward data to specific devices, reducing
congestion.
 Operate at Layer 2 (Data Link Layer).
6.Functions and Responsibilities of the Network Layer:
The network layer handles the following functions:
o Routing: Determines the best path for data packets to reach their
destination.
o Logical Addressing: Assigns IP addresses for unique device identification.
o Packet Forwarding: Forwards packets based on routing tables and
protocols.
o Fragmentation and Reassembly: Splits large packets into smaller fragments
for transmission.
o Error Handling and Diagnostics: Provides error reporting and diagnostic
tools (e.g., ICMP).
6.Short Notes on Spanning Tree Bridges:
Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) is a network protocol that prevents loops in Ethernet
networks by creating a loop-free topology. It is used in bridges and switches to ensure
efficient data transmission.
o How It Works:
 STP elects a root bridge and calculates the shortest path to the root
for each switch.
 Blocks redundant paths to prevent broadcast storms and network
loops.
 Automatically reconfigures paths if a link fails.
o Benefits:
 Ensures a loop-free topology, preventing network downtime.
 Provides redundancy and fault tolerance.
 Optimizes network traffic.
 PART-3
1. Convert the following IPv4 addresses from CIDR notation to dotted decimal
notation:
a) 172.16.0.0/20
 Subnet Mask in Dotted Decimal: /20 means 20 bits for the network part, so the
mask is 255.255.240.0
 Range of IPs: 172.16.0.0 to 172.16.15.255
b) 10.10.10.0/24
 Subnet Mask in Dotted Decimal: /24 means 24 bits for the network part, so the
mask is 255.255.255.0
 Range of IPs: 10.10.10.0 to 10.10.10.255
c) 192.168.100.0/22
 Subnet Mask in Dotted Decimal: /22 means 22 bits for the network part, so the
mask is 255.255.252.0
 Range of IPs: 192.168.100.0 to 192.168.103.255

1 (b). Convert the Following IPv4 Addresses from Binary to Dotted Decimal Notation:
a) 11001001.00000111.10101010.10000010
 Convert each octet to decimal:
o 11001001 → 201
o 00000111 → 7
o 10101010 → 170
o 10000010 → 130
 Result: 201.7.170.130
b) 11011101.00010111.10100010.10000011
 Convert each octet to decimal:
o 11011101 → 221
o 00010111 → 23
o 10100010 → 162
o 10000011 → 131
 Result: 221.23.162.131

2 (a). Explain the IPv4 Addressing Scheme:

 IPv4 Addressing:
o IPv4 uses a 32-bit address divided into four octets (8 bits each) separated
by dots.
o Example: 192.168.0.1
o Address space is divided into classes (A, B, C, D, E) based on network size.
o Supports public and private IP addresses for local and global
communication.
o Divided into network and host portions, determined by subnet masks.

2 (b). Explain the Process of Subnetting and Its Importance in IP Addressing:

 Subnetting:
o A technique to divide a larger network into smaller, manageable sub-
networks.
o Achieved by borrowing bits from the host portion of an IP address to create
 subnet masks.
o Example: 192.168.1.0/24 can be subnetted to 192.168.1.0/26, providing
four subnets.
 Importance:
o Reduces network congestion and broadcast traffic.
o Increases network security and simplifies management.
o Enables efficient IP address utilization.

3 (a). Main Components of an IPv6 Address and Their Significance:

 IPv6 Address Components:
o 128-bit address divided into eight 16-bit blocks separated by colons (e.g.,
2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0370:7334).
o Global Routing Prefix: Identifies the network (first 48 bits).
o Subnet ID: Used for subnetting (next 16 bits).
o Interface Identifier: Unique host identifier (last 64 bits).
 Significance:
o Provides a vast address space to accommodate future growth.
o Supports efficient routing and security with IPsec.
o Eliminates the need for NAT (Network Address Translation).

3 (b). Explain the IPv4 Datagram Header Format and Describe Each Field:
 IPv4 Datagram Header Fields:
o Version (4 bits): Indicates IPv4 (value 4).
o IHL (4 bits): Header length in 32-bit words.
o Type of Service (8 bits): Specifies priority and quality of service.
o Total Length (16 bits): Total size of the packet in bytes.
o Identification (16 bits): Uniquely identifies each packet.
o Flags (3 bits): Controls fragmentation.
o Fragment Offset (13 bits): Indicates fragment position.
o TTL (8 bits): Limits packet lifespan.
o Protocol (8 bits): Identifies upper-layer protocol (e.g., TCP, UDP).
o Header Checksum (16 bits): Ensures header integrity.
o Source IP (32 bits): IP address of sender.
o Destination IP (32 bits): IP address of recipient.
o Options (Variable): Optional features.

4 (a). Advantages and Limitations of Using IPv4 Addressing:

 Advantages:
o Simple and widely supported.
o Efficient in small networks.
o Supports dynamic addressing (DHCP).
 Limitations:
o Limited address space (only ~4.3 billion addresses).
o Lacks built-in security.
o Prone to IP address exhaustion.
o Requires NAT for large networks.

4 (b). How Does the Network Layer Facilitate Internetworking in TCP/IP

Architecture?
 Role of Network Layer in Internetworking:
o Provides end-to-end packet delivery using IP addresses.
o Determines the best path for data transmission using routing protocols.
o Supports fragmentation and reassembly to handle varying MTUs.
o Uses logical addressing (IP addresses) for unique device identification.
o Provides error handling and diagnostics using protocols like ICMP.