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Short Notes: Form 4 Chemistry

Chemical Formulae and Equation
Calculation
For Solid, liquid or gas For gas (only)

mass of subtance volume of gas

number of mole = number of mole =
molar mass molar volme

Molar mass = RAM/RMM/RFM in gram Molar volume = 24dm3 at room temperature

Molar volume = 22.4dm3 at s.t.p.

For Solution For quantity of particle(atom,molecule,ion)

MV quantity of particle
6.02 ×1023
number of mole = number of mole =
1000

M = molarity
V = Volume of solution in cm3

Summary

÷ molar mass × Avogadro Constant

Mass of particle Mole of Number of

(in gram) particles particles

× molar mass Avogadro Constant

÷ molar volume × molar volume

Volume of
Gas

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Chemical Formula

Cation (Positive Ions)

Ion Symbol Ion Symbol Ion Symbol

Potassium K+ Calcium Ca2+ Aluminium Al3+
Sodium Na+ Magnesium Mg2+ Iron (III) Fe3+
Lithium Li+ Zinc Zn2+ Chromium(III) Cr3+
Hydrogen H+ Barium Ba2+
Argentums(I) Ag+ Iron (II) Fe2+
Mercury(I) Hg+ Tin (II) Sn2+
Ammonium NH4+ Lead(II) Pb2+
Copper(II) Cu2+
Manganese(II) Mn2+

Anion (Negative Ions)

Ion Symbol Ion Symbol Ion Symbol

Oxide O2- Hydroxide OH- Ethanoate CH3COO-
Fluoride F- Sulphate SO42- Manganate(VII) MnO4-
Chloride Cl- Nitrate NO3- Dichromate(VI) Cr2O72-
Bromide Br- Carbonate CO32- Phosphate PO43-
Iodide I- Thiosulphate S2O32-

Formulae for Certain Molecule

Karbon monoxide CO Ammonia NH3

Carbon dioxide CO2 water H2O
Nitrogen monoxide NO Hydrogen chloride HCl
Nitrogen dioxide NO2 Tetrachloromethane CCl4
Sulphur dioxide SO2 Glucose C6H12O6
Sulphur trioxide SO3 Hydrogen bromide HBr
Fluorine F2 Hydrogen iodide HI
Bromine Br2 Hydrogen sulphide H2S
Chlorine Cl2 Ethanol C2H5OH
Iodine I2 Ethanoic Acid CH3COOH

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Periodic Table
Reaction of Group 1 Elements

1. Reaction with Oxygen

4Li + O2 ⎯→ 2Li2O
The entire group 1 metal can react with oxygen to form metal oxide.

4Na + O2 ⎯→ 2Na2O
4K + O2 ⎯→ 2K2O

Li2O + H2O ⎯→ 2LiOH

The metal oxide of group 1 elements can dissolve in water to form alkali (hydroxide) solution

Na2O + H2O ⎯→ 2NaOH

K2O + H2O ⎯→ 2KOH

2Li + Cl2 ⎯→ 2LiCl

2. Reaction with halogen (Chlorine)

2Na + Cl2 ⎯→ 2NaCl

2K + Cl2 ⎯→ 2KCl

3. Reaction with water

2Li + 2H2O ⎯→ 2LiOH + H2

The entire group 1 metal can react with water to produce alkali (hydroxide) solution and hydrogen gas.

2Na + 2H2O ⎯→ 2NaOH + H2

2K + 2H2O ⎯→ 2KOH + H2

Reaction of Group 17 Elements

Cl2 + H2O ⎯→ HCl + HOCl

1. React with water

Br2 + H2O ⎯→ HBr + HOBr

I2 + H2O ⎯→ HI + HOI

Cl2 + 2NaOH ⎯→ NaCl + NaOCl + H2O

2. React with Sodium Hydroxide

Br2 + 2NaOH ⎯→ NaBr + NaOBr + H2O

I2 + 2NaOH ⎯→ NaI + NaOI + H2O

3Cl2 + 2Fe ⎯→ 2FeCl3

3. React with Iron

3Br2 + 2Fe ⎯→ 2FeBr3

3I2 + 2Fe ⎯→ 2FeI3

2KMnO4 + 16HCl ⎯→ 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 5Cl2 + 8H2O

Preparation of Chlorine Gas

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Electrochemistry
Electrolyte

Ionisation of Electrolyte

PbBr2 ⎯→ Pb2+ + Br-

Ionisation of Molten Compound

NaCl ⎯→ Na+ + Cl-

Al2O3 ⎯→ 2Al3+ + 3O2-

Ionisation of Aqueous Solution

NaCl ⎯→ Na+ + Cl- HCl ⎯→ H+ + Cl- CuSO4 ⎯→ Cu2+ + SO42-

H2O ⎯→ H+ + OH- H2O ⎯→ H+ + OH- H2O ⎯→ H+ + OH-

Na + e ⎯→ Na 2Cl- ⎯→ Cl2 + 2e
Discharge of Positive Ion Discharge of Negative Ion
+

Observation: Observation:
Grey deposit is formed. Bubbles of pungent yellowish green gas are

Al3+ + 3e ⎯→ Al
produced. The gas turns moist litmus paper to red
and then bleaches it.

2Br- ⎯→ Br2 + 2e
Observation:
Grey deposit is formed.

Pb + 2e ⎯→ Pb
Observation:
2+ Molten electrolyte:
Observation: Brown colour gas is produced.
Grey deposit is formed.

Cu + 2e ⎯→ Cu
Aqueous solution:
2+ Light brown solution is formed.

2I- ⎯→ I2 + 2e
Observation:
Brown deposit is formed.
Observation:
Ag+ + e ⎯→ Ag
Molten electrolyte:
Brown colour gas is produced.
Observation:
Silver deposit is formed. Aqueous solution:

2H+ + 2e ⎯→ H2
Light brown solution is formed. The solution turns
blue when a few drops of starch solution is added in.

4OH- ⎯→ O2 + 2H2O + 4e
Observation:
Gas bubble is formed. A ‘pop’ sound is produced
when a lighted splinter is placed near the mouth of Observation:
the test tube. Gas bubble is formed. Gas produces light up a
wooden splinter.

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Acid and Base
Ionisation of Acid

HCl ⎯→ H + Cl H2SO4 ⎯→ H+ + SO42-

Hydrochloric Acid Sulphuric Acid
+ -

HCl + H2O ⎯→ H3O+ + Cl- H2SO4 + 2H2O ⎯→ 2H3O+ + SO42-

HNO3 ⎯→ H+ + NO3-
Nitric Acid

HNO3 + H2O ⎯→ H3O+ + NO3- CH3COOH ⎯→ H+ + CH3COO-

Ethanoic Acid

CH3COOH + H2O ⎯→ H3O+ + CH3COO-

Chemical Properties of Acid

Acid + Reactive Metal ⎯→ Salt + H2

2HCl + Zn ⎯→ ZnCl2 + H2
Example:

6HNO3 + 2Fe ⎯→ 2Fe(NO3)3 + 3H2

6CH3COOH + 2Al ⎯→ 2Al(CH3COO)3 + 3H2

H2SO4 + Pb⎯→ PbSO4 + H2

Acid + Metal Oxide⎯→ Salt + H2O

2HCl + ZnO ⎯→ ZnCl2 + H2O

Example:

2HNO3 + MgO ⎯→ Mg(NO3)2 + H2O

H2SO4 + CuO ⎯→ CuSO4 + H2O
2CH3COOH + Na2O ⎯→ 2CH3COO-Na++ H2O

Acid + Metal Hydroxide⎯→ Salt + H2O

2HCl + Ca(OH)2 ⎯→ CaCl2 + 2H2O

Example:

H2SO4 + 2NH4OH ⎯→ (NH4)2SO4 + 2H2O H2SO4 + 2NH3 ⎯→ (NH4)2SO4

HNO3 + NaOH⎯→ NaNO3 + H2O

CH3COOH + KOH ⎯→ CH3COO K + H2O

or
- +

Acid + Metal Carbonate ⎯→ Salt + CO2 + H2O

2HCl + ZnCO3 ⎯→ ZnCl2 + CO2 + H2O

Example:

2HNO3 + CaCO3 ⎯→ Ca(NO3)2 + CO2 + H2O

H2SO4 + Na2CO3 ⎯→ Na2SO4 + CO2 + H2O
2CH3COOH + MgCO3 ⎯→ Mg(CH3COO)2 + CO2 + H2O

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Salt
Solubility of Salt

Salt Solubility
Salt of potassium, sodium and ammonium All are soluble in water
Salt of nitrate All are soluble in water
Salt of sulphate Mostly soluble in water except:
(Pb) Lead sulphate
(Ba) Barium sulphate
(Ca) Calcium sulphate
Salt of chloride Mostly soluble in water except:
(Pb) Lead chloride
(Ag) silver chloride
(Hg) mercury chloride
Salt of carbonate Mostly insoluble in water except:
Potassium carbonate
Sodium carbonate
Ammonium carbonate
Oxide and Hydroxide Solubility
Oxide Mostly insoluble in water except: K2O and Na2O.
Hydroxide Mostly insoluble in water except: NH4OH, KOH and NaOH

Preparation of Salt

Preparation of Soluble Salt

Salt of Potassium, Sodium and Ammonium

Acid + Alkali ⎯→ Salt + Water

Example: Preparation of Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

HCl + NaOH ⎯→ NaCl + H2O

Salt of non-Potassium, Sodium and Ammonium

Acid + Reactive metal ⎯→ Salt + Hydrogen Gas

Acid + Metal Oxide ⎯→ Salt + Water
Acid + Metal Carbonate ⎯→ Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide

Example: Preparation of Zinc Sulphate (ZnSO4)

H2SO4 + Zn ⎯→ ZnSO4 + H2
H2SO4 + ZnO ⎯→ ZnSO4 + H2O
H2SO4 + ZnCO3 ⎯→ ZnSO4 + H2O + CO2

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Preparation of Insoluble Salt

Ionic Precipitation
Insoluble salts can be made by double decomposition. This involves mixing a solution that contains its
positive ions with another solution that contains its negative ions.

AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) ⎯→ AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)

Example: Preparation of Silver Nitrate

Ag+ (aq) + C1- (aq) ⎯→ AgCl (s) (ionic equation)

Colour of Salt

Salt or metal oxide Solid Aqueous solution

Salt of:
Sodium, Calcium, Magnesium, Aluminium, zinc,
Lead, ammonium White Colourless

Chloride, sulphate, nitrate, carbonate

Salt of Copper(II).-
Copper(II) Carbonate Green Insoluble
Copper(II) sulphate, Copper(II) nitrate, Copper(II)
Blue Blue
chloride
Copper(II) oxide Black Insoluble
Salt of Iron (II)
Green Green
Iron(II) sulphate; Iron(II) nitrate; Iron(ID chloride
Salt of Iron (III).
Iron(III) sulphate; Iron(III) nitrate; Iron(III) Brown Brown
chloride
Lead Iodide Yellow Insoluble
Lead Chloride White Insoluble
Zink oxide Yellow when it is hot and
Insoluble
white when it is cold.
Lead(II) oxide- Brown when it is hot and
Insoluble
yellow when it is cold.
Magnesium oxide, Aluminium oxide White Insoluble
Potassium oxide, Sodium oxide, Calcium oxide White Colourless

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Heating effect on Salt
Heating
Effect

CO32- NO3 - SO42- Cl-

Most Probably Most Probably Most Probably Most Probably

Release CO2 Release NO2 Release SO3 No effect

Heating Effect on Carbonate Salt

Carbonate Salt Equation of The Reaction
Potassium carbonate Not decomposible

CaCO3 ⎯→ CaO + CO2

Sodium carbonate

MgCO3 ⎯→ MgO + CO2

Al2(CO3)3 ⎯→ Al2O3 + 3CO2
Calcium carbonate
Magnesium carbonate
ZnCO3 ⎯→ ZnO + CO2
Aluminium carbonate

Fe2(CO3)3⎯→ Fe2O3 + 3CO2

Zinc carbonate

PbCO3 ⎯→ PbO + CO2

Iron (III) carbonate

CuCO3 ⎯→ CuO + CO2

Lead(II) carbonate
Copper(II) carbonate

2HgCO3 ⎯→ 2Hg + 2CO2 + O2

2Ag2CO3 ⎯→ 4Ag + 2CO2 + O2
Mercury(II) carbonate
Silver(I) carbonate

Ammonium carbonate (NH4)2CO3 ⎯→ NH3 + CO2 + H2O

Heating Effect on Nitrate Salt

2KNO3 ⎯→ 2KNO2 + O2
Nitrate Salt Equation of The Reaction

2NaNO3 ⎯→ 2NaNO2 + O2
Potassium nitrate
Sodium nitrate
2Ca(NO3)2 ⎯→ 2CaO + 4NO2 + O2
Mg(NO3)2 ⎯→ 2MgO + 4NO2 + O2
Calcium nitrate

4Al(NO3)3 ⎯→ 2Al2O3 + 12NO2 + 3O2

Magnesium nitrate

Zn(NO3)2 ⎯→ 2ZnO + 4NO2 + O2

Aluminium nitrate

4Fe(NO3)3⎯→ 2Fe2O3 + 12NO2 + 3O2

Zink nitrate
Iron (III) nitrate
Pb(NO3)2 ⎯→ 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2
Lead(II) nitrate

Cu(NO3)2 ⎯→ 2CuO + 4NO2 + O2

Copper(II) nitrate

Hg(NO3)2 ⎯→ Hg + 2NO2 + O2
2AgNO3 ⎯→ 2Ag + 2NO2 + O2
Mercury(II) nitrate
Silver(I) nitrate

Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 ⎯→ N2O + 2H2O

[NOTES: Nitrogen dioxide, NO2 is acidic gas and is brown in colour.]

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Heating effect on sulphate salt The heating effect on chloride salts
Most sulphate salts do not decompose by heat. Only All chloride salts are not decomposable by heat
certain sulphate salts are decomposed by heat when except ammonium chloride.
heated strongly. Example:

NH4Cl ⎯→ NH3 + HCl

Zinc sulphate, Copper (II) sulphate, Iron (III)

ZnSO4 ⎯→ ZnO + SO3

sulphate

CuSO4 ⎯→ CuO + SO3

2Fe2(SO4)3⎯→ Fe2O3 + SO2 + SO3

(NH4)2SO4 ⎯⎯→ 2NH3 + H2SO4

Ammonium sulphate

Identification of Gases
Gasses Characteristics
Oxygen Rekindle glowing splinter.
Hydrogen Explode with a ‘pop’ sound when brought close to a lighted splinter.
Carbon Dioxide Turns lime water chalky.
Chlorine Bleach moist litmus paper.
Ammonia Pungent smell.
Turn moist red litmus paper to blue.
Produces white fume when reacts with concentrated hydrochloric Acid.
Sulphur Dioxide Pungent smell.
Bleach the purple colour of potassium manganate(VII).
Turn moist blue litmus paper to red.
Nitrogen Dioxide Pungent smell.
Brown in colour.
Turn moist blue litmus paper to red.

Qualitative analysis
Identification of Anions (Negative ions)
Diluted HCl or BaCl (aq) or Ba(NO3)2 AgNO3 follow by Brown Ring Test
diluted HNO3 or (aq) follow by diluted diluted HNO3. ( + FeSO4 (aq ) +
diluted H2SO4 HCl/HNO3 concentratedH2SO4
White precipitate is
White precipitate is
2- Carbon Dioxide is formed. It is soluble in
CO3 released. diluted HCl/HNO3
formed. It is soluble in -
diluted HNO3
White precipitate is
2- formed. It is NOT soluble
SO4 -
in diluted HCl/HNO3
- -

White precipitate is
formed. It is NOT
Cl- - -
soluble in diluted
-
HNO3
Formation of Brown
NO3- - - -
Ring

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Idendification of cation

H2SO4 or
NaOH(ak) NH3(ak) HCl or NaCl Na2CO3 KI
Na2SO4

Na+

White White
White
Ca2+ precipitate.
precipitate is precipitate is
produced. produced.

White White White

Mg2+ precipitate is precipitate is precipitate is
produced. produced. produced.

White
precipitate is
White White
produced.
Al3+ Dissolve in
precipitate is precipitate is
produced. produced.
excess NaOH .
solution.
White White
precipitate is precipitate is
White
produced. produced.
Zn2+ Dissolve in Dissolve in
precipitate is
produced.
excess NaOH excess NH3
solution. solution.
White
White Yellow
precipitate is
White precipitate is White White precipitate is
produced.
Pb2+ Dissolve in
precipitate is produced. precipitate is precipitate is produced.
produced. Dissolve in hot produced. produced. Dissolve in hot
excess NaOH
water water
solution.

Dirty green Dirty green Green

Fe2+ precipitate is precipitate is precipitate is
produced. produced. produced.

Red brown Red brown Brown

3+ A red brown
Fe precipitate is precipitate is precipitate is
solution formed.
produced. produced. produced.

Blue precipitate
is produced.
White
Dissolve in
2+ Blue precipitate Blue precipitate precipitate form
Cu is produced.
excess NH3
is produced. in brown
solution and
solution
form a blue
solution.

NH4+

= No changes is observed

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Distibguish Iron(II) and Iron(III)

Reagent Observation Ion presents

Solution of potassium hecxacianoferate(II) Light blue precipitate Fe2+
Dark Blue precipitate Fe3+
Solution of potassium hecxacianoferate(III) Dark blue precipitate Fe2+
Greenish brown solution Fe3+
Solution of potassium Thiocyanate(II) Pinkish solution Fe2+
Blood red solution Fe3+

Manufactured Substances in Industry

Contact Process (Making Sulphuric Acid)

Stage 1: Formation of SO2

Combustion of Sulphur
S (s) + O2 (g) ⎯⎯→ SO2 (g)
or
Heating of metal sulphide such as lead(II) sulphide
2PbS(s) + 3O2(g) ⎯⎯→ 2PbO(s) + 2SO2(g)
or

2H2S(g) + 3O2(g) ⎯⎯→ 2SO2(g) + 2H2O(ce)

Combustion of hiydrogen sulphide

2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) ⎯⎯→ 2SO3 (g)

Stage 2: Formation of SO3

Catalyst: vanadium(V) oxide

Temperature: 450°C
Pressure: 2-3 atmospheres

Stage 3 Formation of oleum H2S2O7

SO3(g) + H2SO4(aq) ⎯⎯→ H2S2O7(l)

Stage 4:Formation of Sulphuric acid

H2S207 (1) + H2O (1) ⎯⎯→ 2H2SO4(aq)

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Haber Process (Making Ammonia)

Sources of the raw material

Hydrogen 1. Reaction between steam and heated coke
H2O + C ⎯→ CO + H2
2. Reaction between steam and natural gas.
2H 2 O + CH 4 ⎯→ CO2 + 4H2
Nitrogen From distillation of liquid air.

The reaction
1. Ammonia is made by the Haber process from nitrogen and hydrogen:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⎯→ 2NH3(g); ΔH = -92 kJ mo1-1

Catalyst: Iron
Promoter: Aluminium oxide
Temperature: 450 °C
Pressure: 200-1000 atm

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