2.3.

ROW OPERATIONS AND EQUIVALENT SYSTEMS 21

2.2.1 A Solution Method

Example 2.2.4 Let us solve the linear system x + 7y + 3z = 11, x + y + z = 3, and 4x + 10y − z = 13.
Solution:

1. The above linear system and the linear system

x+y+z =3 Interchange the first two equations.

x + 7y + 3z = 11 (2.2.2)
4x + 10y − z = 13

have the same set of solutions. (why?)

2. Eliminating x from 2nd and 3rd equation, we get the linear system

x+y+z =3
6y + 2z =8 (obtained by subtracting the first
equation from the second equation.)
6y − 5z =1 (obtained by subtracting 4 times the first equation
from the third equation.) (2.2.3)

This system and the system (2.2.2) has the same set of solution. (why?)

3. Eliminating y from the last two equations of system (2.2.3), we get the system

x+y+z =3
6y + 2z =8
7z =7 obtained by subtracting the third equation
from the second equation. (2.2.4)

which has the same set of solution as the system (2.2.3). (why?)

4. The system (2.2.4) and system

x+y+z =3
3y + z =4 divide the second equation by 2
z =1 divide the second equation by 2 (2.2.5)

has the same set of solution. (why?)

4−1
5. Now, z = 1 implies y = = 1 and x = 3 − (1 + 1) = 1. Or in terms of a vector, the set of solution
3
t
is { (x, y, z) : (x, y, z) = (1, 1, 1)}.

2.3 Row Operations and Equivalent Systems

Definition 2.3.1 (Elementary Operations) The following operations 1, 2 and 3 are called elementary op-
erations.

1. interchange of two equations, say “interchange the ith and j th equations”;

(compare the system (2.2.2) with the original system.)
22 CHAPTER 2. LINEAR SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS

2. multiply a non-zero constant throughout an equation, say “multiply the k th equation by c 6= 0”;
(compare the system (2.2.5) and the system (2.2.4).)

3. replace an equation by itself plus a constant multiple of another equation, say “replace the k th equation
by k th equation plus c times the j th equation”.
(compare the system (2.2.3) with (2.2.2) or the system (2.2.4) with (2.2.3).)

Observations:

1. In the above example, observe that the elementary operations helped us in getting a linear system
(2.2.5), which was easily solvable.

2. Note that at Step 1, if we interchange the first and the second equation, we get back to the linear
system from which we had started. This means the operation at Step 1, has an inverse operation.
In other words, inverse operation sends us back to the step where we had precisely started.
It will be a useful exercise for the reader to identify the inverse operations at each step in
Example 2.2.4.

So, in Example 2.2.4, the application of a finite number of elementary operations helped us to obtain
a simpler system whose solution can be obtained directly. That is, after applying a finite number of
elementary operations, a simpler linear system is obtained which can be easily solved. Note that the
three elementary operations defined above, have corresponding inverse operations, namely,

1. “interchange the ith and j th equations”,

2. “divide the k th equation by c 6= 0”;

3. “replace the k th equation by k th equation minus c times the j th equation”.

It will be a useful exercise for the reader to identify the inverse operations at each step in
Example 2.2.4.

Definition 2.3.2 (Equivalent Linear Systems) Two linear systems are said to be equivalent if one can be
obtained from the other by a finite number of elementary operations.

The linear systems at each step in Example 2.2.4 are equivalent to each other and also to the original
linear system.

Lemma 2.3.3 Let Cx = d be the linear system obtained from the linear system Ax = b by a single
elementary operation. Then the linear systems Ax = b and Cx = d have the same set of solutions.

Proof. We prove the result for the elementary operation “the k th equation is replaced by k th equation
plus c times the j th equation.” The reader is advised to prove the result for other elementary operations.
In this case, the systems Ax = b and Cx = d vary only in the k th equation. Let (α1 , α2 , . . . , αn )
be a solution of the linear system Ax = b. Then substituting for αi ’s in place of xi ’s in the k th and j th
equations, we get

ak1 α1 + ak2 α2 + · · · akn αn = bk , and aj1 α1 + aj2 α2 + · · · ajn αn = bj .

Therefore,
(ak1 + caj1 )α1 + (ak2 + caj2 )α2 + · · · + (akn + cajn )αn = bk + cbj . (2.3.1)
But then the k th equation of the linear system Cx = d is

(ak1 + caj1 )x1 + (ak2 + caj2 )x2 + · · · + (akn + cajn )xn = bk + cbj . (2.3.2)
2.3. ROW OPERATIONS AND EQUIVALENT SYSTEMS 23

Therefore, using Equation (2.3.1), (α1 , α2 , . . . , αn ) is also a solution for the k th Equation (2.3.2).
Use a similar argument to show that if (β1 , β2 , . . . , βn ) is a solution of the linear system Cx = d then
it is also a solution of the linear system Ax = b.
Hence, we have the proof in this case. 

Lemma 2.3.3 is now used as an induction step to prove the main result of this section (Theorem
2.3.4).

Theorem 2.3.4 Two equivalent systems have the same set of solutions.

Proof. Let n be the number of elementary operations performed on Ax = b to get Cx = d. We prove

the theorem by induction on n.
If n = 1, Lemma 2.3.3 answers the question. If n > 1, assume that the theorem is true for n = m.
Now, suppose n = m + 1. Apply the Lemma 2.3.3 again at the “last step” (that is, at the (m + 1)th step
from the mth step) to get the required result using induction. 

Let us formalise the above section which led to Theorem 2.3.4. For solving a linear system of equa-
tions, we applied elementary operations to equations. It is observed that in performing the elementary
operations, the calculations were made on the coefficients (numbers). The variables x1 , x2 , . . . , xn
and the sign of equality (that is, “ = ”) are not disturbed. Therefore, in place of looking at the system
of equations as a whole, we just need to work with the coefficients. These coefficients when arranged in
a rectangular array gives us the augmented matrix [A b].

Definition 2.3.5 (Elementary Row Operations) The elementary row operations are defined as:

1. interchange of two rows, say “interchange the ith and j th rows”, denoted Rij ;

2. multiply a non-zero constant throughout a row, say “multiply the k th row by c 6= 0”, denoted Rk (c);

3. replace a row by itself plus a constant multiple of another row, say “replace the k th row by k th row
plus c times the j th row”, denoted Rkj (c).

Exercise 2.3.6 Find the inverse row operations corresponding to the elementary row operations that have
been defined just above.

Definition 2.3.7 (Row Equivalent Matrices) Two matrices are said to be row-equivalent if one can be
obtained from the other by a finite number of elementary row operations.

Example
 2.3.8
 Thethree matrices
 given below
 are row equivalent.

0 1 1 2 2 0 3 5 1 0 23 52
  −−→   −−−−−→  
2 0 3 5 R12 0 1 1 2 R1 (1/2) 0 1 1 2  .
1 1 1 3 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 3
   
0 1 1 2 1 0 1 2
   
Whereas the matrix 2 0 3 5 is not row equivalent to the matrix 0 2 3 5 .
1 1 1 3 1 1 1 3
24 CHAPTER 2. LINEAR SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS

2.3.1 Gauss Elimination Method

Definition 2.3.9 (Forward/Gauss Elimination Method) Gaussian elimination is a method of solving a
linear system Ax = b (consisting of m equations in n unknowns) by bringing the augmented matrix
 
a11 a12 · · · a1n b1
 
 a21 a22 · · · a2n b2 
[A b] =  .
 .. .. .. .. 
 ..

. . . . 
am1 am2 · · · amn bm

to an upper triangular form  

c11 c12 ··· c1n d1
 
 0 c22 ··· c2n d2 
 .. .. .. .. .
 .. 
 . . . . . 
0 0 ··· cmn dm
This elimination process is also called the forward elimination method.

The following examples illustrate the Gauss elimination procedure.

Example 2.3.10 Solve the linear system by Gauss elimination method.

y+z = 2
2x + 3z = 5
x+y+z = 3
 
0 1 1 2
 
Solution: In this case, the augmented matrix is 2 0 3 5 . The method proceeds along the fol-
1 1 1 3
lowing steps.

1. Interchange 1st and 2nd equation (or R12 ).

 
2x + 3z =5 2 0 3 5
 
y+z =2 0 1 1 2 .
x+y+z =3 1 1 1 3

2. Divide the 1st equation by 2 (or R1 (1/2)).

 
x + 32 z = 52 1 0 3
2
5
2
 
y+z =2 0 1 1 2 .
x+y+z =3 1 1 1 3

3. Add −1 times the 1st equation to the 3rd equation (or R31 (−1)).
 
x + 32 z = 52 1 0 3
2
5
2
 
y+z =2 0 1 1 2 .
1 1
y − 2z = 2 0 1 − 12 1
2

4. Add −1 times the 2nd equation to the 3rd equation (or R32 (−1)).
 
x + 32 z = 52 1 0 3
2
5
2
 
y+z =2 0 1 1 2 .
− 32 z = − 32 0 0 − 32 − 23
2.3. ROW OPERATIONS AND EQUIVALENT SYSTEMS 25

5. Multiply the 3rd equation by −2

3 (or R3 (− 23 )).
 
x + 32 z = 25 1 0 3
2
5
2
 
y+z =2 0 1 1 2 .
z =1 0 0 1 1

The last equation gives z = 1, the second equation now gives y = 1. Finally the first equation gives
x = 1. Hence the set of solutions is (x, y, z)t = (1, 1, 1)t , a unique solution.

Example 2.3.11 Solve the linear system by Gauss elimination method.

x+y+z = 3
x + 2y + 2z = 5
3x + 4y + 4z = 11
 
1 1 1 3
 
Solution: In this case, the augmented matrix is 1 2 2 5  and the method proceeds as follows:
3 4 4 11
1. Add −1 times the first equation to the second equation.
 
x+y+z =3 1 1 1 3
 
y+z =2 0 1 1 2 .
3x + 4y + 4z = 11 3 4 4 11

2. Add −3 times the first equation to the third equation.

 
x+y+z =3 1 1 1 3
 
y+z =2 0 1 1 2 .
y+z =2 0 1 1 2

3. Add −1 times the second equation to the third equation

 
1 1 1 3
x+y+z =3  
0 1 1 2 .
y+z =2
0 0 0 0

Thus, the set of solutions is (x, y, z)t = (1, 2 − z, z)t = (1, 2, 0)t + z(0, −1, 1)t, with z arbitrary. In other
words, the system has infinite number of solutions.

Example 2.3.12 Solve the linear system by Gauss elimination method.

x+y+z = 3
x + 2y + 2z = 5
3x + 4y + 4z = 12
 
1 1 1 3
 
Solution: In this case, the augmented matrix is 1 2 2 5  and the method proceeds as follows:
3 4 4 12
1. Add −1 times the first equation to the second equation.
 
x+y+z =3 1 1 1 3
 
y+z =2 0 1 1 2 .
3x + 4y + 4z = 12 3 4 4 12