Foundations of Self-Concept

 Young children develop a self-concept, which includes attributes, abilities, attitudes, and
values that define them.
 At ages 3-5, children describe themselves using observable characteristics like name,
appearance, possessions, and behaviors.
 By 3½ years, they begin mentioning emotions and attitudes, and by age 5, their self-
descriptions align with maternal reports of personality traits.
 Secure parent-child relationships foster a positive self-concept, with elaborative
conversations aiding self-knowledge.

Cultural Influences on Self-Concept

 Personal storytelling varies across cultures, shaping self-concept differently.

 Chinese parents emphasize misdeeds in storytelling, teaching social obligations and
responsible behavior.
 Irish-American parents focus less on misdeeds, highlighting children's assertiveness and
fostering self-esteem.
 Chinese children develop a self-concept centered on obligations, while American
children emphasize autonomy.

Emergence of Self-Esteem

 Self-esteem involves judgments about self-worth and related feelings.

 By age 4, children evaluate their abilities in learning, friendships, and behavior.
 Preschoolers overestimate their abilities, contributing to motivation and initiative.
 Supportive parenting fosters enthusiasm and persistence, while criticism leads to low
self-worth and shame.

Understanding Emotion

 Between ages 2-6, children improve in emotional understanding, self-regulation, and

empathy.
 By 4-5 years, they recognize causes of emotions but emphasize external factors over
internal states.
 Emotion knowledge helps with peer relationships and social skills.
 Parents who label and explain emotions raise children with better emotional
understanding.

Emotional Self-Regulation

 By ages 3-4, children verbalize strategies for managing negative emotions.

 Strategies include restricting sensory input, self-talk, goal adjustment, and conflict
resolution.
 Observing parents helps children develop emotional regulation skills.
  Supportive conversations prepare children for difficult experiences and improve
emotional self-regulation.

Helping Children Manage Common Fears

 Common fears include monsters, separation, animals, and intense phobias.

 Parents can reduce exposure to scary content, offer reassurance, and encourage gradual
exposure.
 Intense, persistent fears may require counseling.

Self-Conscious Emotions

 By age 3, children experience emotions like shame and guilt, linked to self-awareness.
 Praise and blame influence children’s self-conscious emotions.
 Developing self-concept makes children more sensitive to feedback on their actions.

Advances in Peer Sociability

 As children become more self-aware and improve communication, their peer interactions
enhance.
 Peers offer unique learning experiences, requiring cooperation, conversation, and goal-
setting in play.
 Friendships develop as special relationships based on attachment and shared interests.

Mildred Parten’s Stages of Peer Sociability

 Parten identified a three-step sequence in peer social development:

o Nonsocial activity: Solitary play or onlooker behavior.
o Parallel play: Playing near other children with similar materials but without
interaction.
o Associative play: Separate activities with shared toys and comments.
o Cooperative play: Engaging in play with a common goal, such as role-playing
scenarios.

Follow-Up Research on Peer Sociability

 All play forms coexist rather than replacing each other in a strict sequence.
 Parallel play acts as a transition between social interactions.
 Nonsocial activity remains frequent among young children but declines with age.
 Empathy grows with improved language and perspective-taking skills, fostering prosocial
behavior.

Cognitive Maturity in Play

 Types of play evolve in complexity as children grow:

 o Functional play: Simple, repetitive motor actions.
o Constructive play: Creating and building activities.
o Make-believe play: Acting out roles and imaginative scenarios.
 Solitary play is normal unless it involves aimless wandering or repetitive actions, which
may indicate social difficulties.

Sociodramatic and Rough-and-Tumble Play

 Sociodramatic play helps children regulate emotions, understand others, and negotiate
rules.
 Boys engage more in rough-and-tumble play, which also aids emotional and social
development.
 Both play types require self-control and emotional awareness.

Cultural Variations in Peer Sociability

 Cultural values influence play styles:

o In India, children play in large, cooperative groups with synchronized actions.
o Chinese children accept reticent peers, contrasting with Western children who
may reject them.
o Mayan children engage in real-life interpretive play, whereas Western children
favor imaginative themes.

First Friendships

 Preschool friendships involve shared play and toy exchanges but lack enduring mutual
trust.
 Friendships tend to be stable if children stay in the same social group.
 Friends provide more support, praise, and cooperation compared to non-friends.
 Preschoolers with friendships show better social skills and adjust more easily to school.

Peer Relations and School Readiness

 Early social competence predicts cooperation and academic motivation.

 Schools should provide time, space, and adult guidance for free play to support social
development.
 Teacher sensitivity and emotional support enhance peer relationships, especially for shy
or aggressive children.

Parental Influences on Peer Relations

 Parents shape peer sociability both directly and indirectly.

 Direct influences: Arranging playdates and guiding social interactions improve social
skills.
 Indirect influences: Secure attachment and warm, expressive communication lead to
better peer interactions.
  Parental play, especially with same-sex children, fosters social competence.

The Psychoanalytic Perspective

 According to Freud, young children form a superego (conscience) by identifying with

the same-sex parent and adopting their moral standards.
 Children obey the superego to avoid guilt, which arises when they are tempted to
misbehave.
 Freud believed conscience development was mostly complete by ages 5-6.
 Researchers disagree with Freud, as children whose parents frequently use threats,
commands, or physical force tend to violate standards and feel little guilt.
 If a parent withdraws love after misbehavior, children may develop high levels of self-
blame and, to protect themselves, may deny guilt and develop a weak conscience.

Inductive Discipline

 Induction helps children become aware of feelings by pointing out the effects of their
misbehavior on others.
 Example: “She’s crying because you won’t give back her doll.”
 When warm parents provide explanations that match the child’s understanding while
insisting they listen, induction is effective as early as age 2.
 Induction motivates children’s commitment to moral standards by encouraging
empathy and sympathetic concern.
 Discipline relying too much on threats or love withdrawal makes children too anxious
and frightened to internalize moral rules or respond with empathy.

The Child’s Contribution

 Genetics plays a modest role in empathy, affecting how children respond to discipline.
 Fearful children respond better to gentle discipline, while fearless, impulsive children
require a warm, harmonious relationship combined with firm correction and induction.
 A close parent-child bond helps fearless children stay motivated to follow moral rules.

The Role of Guilt

 Guilt motivates moral action, but Freud was incorrect in believing it was the only force.
 Empathy-based guilt (e.g., “I’m sorry I hurt him”) is particularly effective.
 Guilt is not enough—moral development is a gradual process that continues into
adulthood.

Social Learning Theory

 Morality is acquired through modeling, like any other learned behavior.

Importance of Modeling
  Children are more likely to imitate models who are:
o Warm and responsive, as warmth increases attentiveness.
o Competent and powerful, such as older peers or adults.
o Consistent in their behavior and words—when adults say one thing but do
another, children choose the more lenient standard.
 Modeling is most influential in early years and helps children internalize prosocial
rules over time.
 Material rewards for helping undermine prosocial behavior—children come to expect
rewards instead of helping out of kindness.

Effects of Punishment

 Harsh punishment promotes immediate compliance but not lasting behavior change.
 Harsh punishment has negative side effects:
o Models aggression.
o Creates a chronic sense of threat, making children focus on their own distress
rather than others’ needs.
o Makes children avoid the punitive parent, reducing opportunities for moral
guidance.
o Gives temporary relief to parents, leading to more frequent punishment.
o Increases acceptance of corporal punishment, passing it to the next generation.
 Corporal punishment is linked to aggression, antisocial behavior, depression, and long-
term negative outcomes.
 Harsh punishment is especially harmful for temperamentally difficult children and is
more common in economically disadvantaged families.

Alternatives to Harsh Punishment

 Time out involves removing children from the immediate setting (e.g., sending them
to their rooms) until they are ready to behave appropriately.
 Time out allows both children and angry parents time to cool off.
 Withdrawal of privileges (e.g., no TV) is another effective method, avoiding harsh
techniques that can escalate into violence.

Increasing the Effectiveness of Mild Punishment

1. Consistency – Scolding children inconsistently confuses them and allows misbehavior to

continue.
2. Warm Parent-Child Relationship – Children of caring parents dislike losing affection,
making punishment more effective.
3. Explanations – Giving reasons for mild punishment helps children connect their
misbehavior to future expectations.

Cultural Influences: Ethnic Differences in the Consequences of Physical

Punishment
  In some African-American communities, physical discipline is seen as appropriate
and is delivered with warmth, while screaming or cursing is considered abusive.
 Studies show mixed effects of corporal punishment across ethnic groups:
o Among white families, spanking predicted more externalizing behavior over
time.
o Among African-American families, spanking was not linked to later behavior
problems.
 Black parents tend to use physical discipline to prevent misbehavior, while white
parents often use it reactively, leading to different effects.
 The meaning and impact of physical punishment vary—it is less harmful when mild,
culturally accepted, and accompanied by warmth.
 Despite cultural differences, other positive discipline strategies (time out, withdrawal of
privileges) are more effective than physical punishment.
 By adolescence, physical punishment is associated with depression and misconduct,
regardless of ethnicity.

Positive Parenting Strategies

 Use misbehavior as a teaching opportunity by discussing expectations and encouraging

amends.
 Reduce opportunities for misbehavior by keeping children engaged in positive
activities.
 Provide clear reasons for rules so children see them as fair.
 Involve children in family routines (e.g., chores) to build responsibility.
 When children resist, use compromise and problem-solving to encourage cooperation.
 Praise and encourage mature behavior to build confidence and motivation.

Key Notes on Aggression in Early Childhood

Types of Aggression

 Verbal Aggression is always direct.

 Physical & Relational Aggression can be direct (e.g., hitting, threats) or indirect (e.g.,
property damage, spreading rumors).

Developmental Trends in Aggression

 Physical aggression increases between ages 1-3, then declines as verbal skills improve.
 Proactive aggression declines as children learn self-control, while reactive aggression
(verbal/relational) increases as they recognize hostile intentions.
 By 17 months, boys are more physically aggressive due to biological factors (hormones,
temperament) and gender roles (parents react more negatively to girls' aggression).
 Girls engage in more relational aggression (e.g., social exclusion), often using indirect
and prolonged tactics.
 Highly aggressive children tend to have difficulty with self-regulation, leading to
emotional and social problems later.
The Family as a Training Ground for Aggression

 Harsh, inconsistent discipline (e.g., physical punishment, power assertion) fosters

aggression.
 Parental stressors (e.g., economic hardship, mental health issues) increase use of harsh
discipline.
 Aggressive behavior escalates when parents "give in" after threats or punishment.
 Sibling aggression in punitive households spreads to peer relationships, leading to poor
impulse control.
 Boys, being more active and impulsive, experience harsher discipline, which affects
emotional self-regulation and empathy.

Media Violence and Aggression

 60% of TV programs contain violent scenes; children’s programming has 10% more
violence than average.
 Watching violent media increases hostile thoughts, emotions, and aggression in all
children, especially younger ones.
 Longitudinal studies show that childhood TV violence exposure predicts aggressive
behavior in adulthood.
 Boys consume more violent media due to themes of conquest and adventure.

Regulating Screen Media Use

 Strategies for parents:

o Limit TV and device use.
o Avoid using screen time as a reward.
o Watch content with children and discuss it critically.
o Connect media to real-world learning.
o Model appropriate media habits.

Helping Children and Parents Control Aggression

 Early intervention is key before aggressive behavior becomes ingrained.

 Parent training programs (e.g., Incredible Years) teach positive discipline and social
skills, reducing long-term aggression.
 School-based programs help children practice social problem-solving, empathy, and
self-regulation.
 Addressing external stressors (e.g., economic struggles, neighborhood instability)
improves intervention outcomes.

Gender-Stereotyped Beliefs and Behavior

 Early Development of Gender Associations:

 o Even before consistently labeling their sex, children associate certain objects,
activities, and traits with one sex (e.g., 18-month-olds link fir trees and hammers
with males).
o Gender-typed learning accelerates once children label their own sex, usually
around age 2.
o Preschoolers show preferences for gender-specific toys, clothing, games, and
behaviors, such as boys being more active and girls being more emotionally
sensitive.
 Gender-Stereotyped Behavior:
o Gender stereotypes become rigid by early childhood, with many children viewing
them as fixed rules rather than flexible guidelines.
o By ages 3-4, many children refuse to interact with peers who violate gender
stereotypes (e.g., boys wearing nail polish or girls playing with trucks).
o Preschoolers exhibit stereotyped judgments, like asserting that men don’t wear
skirts or girls can't be police officers.

Biological Influences on Gender Typing

 Sex Differences in Behavior:

o Biological sex differences in behavior, such as male activity level and female
emotional sensitivity, are seen across cultures and species.
o Evolutionary theory suggests that males evolved for competition and dominance,
while females evolved for nurturing and cooperation, leading to sex-typed
behaviors.
 Prenatal Influences:
o Exposure to androgens during prenatal development leads to more "masculine"
behaviors in both boys and girls, like active play and aggression.
o Girls exposed to higher levels of androgens show preferences for typically
masculine toys and behaviors.
o Boys with reduced androgen exposure tend to exhibit more feminine behaviors.
 Same-Sex Play Preferences:
o Preschoolers prefer to play with same-sex peers, aligning their behaviors with
gender-typed activities.
o At age 4, children spend three times as much time with same-sex peers as with
other-sex peers, and this ratio increases to 11 to 1 by age 6.

Environmental Influences on Gender Typing

 Parents:
o Parents often encourage gender-appropriate behaviors and toys (e.g., cars for
boys, dolls for girls).
o Fathers tend to be more insistent on gender-role conformity, especially with sons.
o Parents' language further reinforces gender stereotypes, like saying, "Boys can be
sailors" or "Girls don’t like trucks."
o Children of parents with non-stereotypical values (e.g., gay or lesbian parents)
tend to be less gender-typed.
  Teachers:
o Teachers reinforce gender stereotypes by making gender distinctions in classroom
behavior (e.g., “boys line up here, girls on the other side”).
o Boys tend to receive more attention, praise, and disciplinary actions, while girls
are encouraged to participate in structured activities.
o Teachers’ expectations of misbehavior in boys and compliance in girls can lead to
gender-typed learning experiences.
 Peers:
o Same-sex play increases gender-typed behavior, with children reinforcing gender
roles through praise and imitation.
o Cross-gender play is often criticized, especially among boys, and leads to
exclusion or rejection.
o In-group favoritism, where children favor same-sex peers, contributes to the
continued separation of boys’ and girls’ social worlds.
 The Broader Social Environment:
o Children are exposed to gender-typed behaviors through media, occupations, and
societal norms.
o Media portrayals, especially in cartoons and video games, reinforce stereotypes
about what is considered appropriate for males and females.

Impact of Child-Rearing Styles on Development

 Child-Rearing Styles:
Child-rearing styles refer to the combination of parenting behaviors that create an
enduring climate for child development. Effective parenting is distinguished by three
features: acceptance and involvement, control, and autonomy granting. These features
affect a child’s emotional, social, and academic growth.
 Authoritative Child Rearing:
o Key Characteristics:
 High acceptance and involvement (warmth, attention, sensitivity to needs).
 Adaptive control (reasonable demands, discipline used as teaching
moments).
 Appropriate autonomy granting (gradual decision-making involvement).
o Outcomes:
 Positive emotional and social development (self-control, task persistence,
cooperativeness).
 High self-esteem, moral maturity, and favorable school performance.
 Promotes resilience, protecting children from negative effects like poverty
or family stress.
 Effective across a variety of temperaments and cultural contexts.
 Authoritarian Child Rearing:
o Key Characteristics:
 Low acceptance and involvement (cold, rejecting behavior).
 High coercive control (excessive demands, punishment, psychological
control).
 Little autonomy granted (parents make decisions for the child).
 o Outcomes:
 Children are anxious, unhappy, low in self-esteem, and tend to show
hostility or dependency.
 Defiant behavior and poor school performance, though children tend to
achieve better than those with permissive or uninvolved parents.
 Psychological control leads to emotional withdrawal, aggression, and
relational issues.
 Permissive Child Rearing:
o Key Characteristics:
 Warm but overindulgent or inattentive.
 Little control (few or no demands for mature behavior).
 Excessive autonomy granted (children make decisions prematurely).
o Outcomes:
 Children are impulsive, disobedient, rebellious, and dependent.
 Poor persistence on tasks, lower school achievement, more antisocial
behavior.
 Uninvolved Child Rearing:
o Key Characteristics:
 Emotionally detached and withdrawn.
 Little control or involvement in child’s behavior.
 Indifference to the child’s autonomy and decision-making.
o Outcomes:
 Severe emotional and social problems, including poor self-regulation,
depression, and antisocial behavior.
 Extreme forms can lead to neglect and severe developmental disruptions.

Why Authoritative Parenting is Effective

 Why It Works:
o Warmth and Reasonable Control: Children thrive in a positive emotional
context where control is seen as fair and reasonable, not arbitrary.
o Building Competence: When parents gradually grant autonomy based on
readiness, children feel competent and capable, which boosts self-esteem and
social maturity.
o Fostering Resilience: Authoritative parenting can buffer children against
negative influences like family stress or economic hardship.
o Long-Term Benefits: The effectiveness of authoritative parenting is supported by
research indicating it leads to maturity, academic success, emotional well-being,
and resilience into adolescence.

Child Maltreatment

 Forms of Maltreatment:
o Physical Abuse: Assaults such as hitting, kicking, or shaking that cause injury.
o Sexual Abuse: Exploitation, including fondling or commercial sexual
exploitation.
 o Neglect: Failure to provide basic needs like food, clothing, education, or
supervision.
o Emotional Abuse: Acts that cause emotional harm, such as humiliation, ridicule,
or terrorizing.
o Prevalence: Neglect is the most common form, followed by physical and
emotional abuse. Sexual abuse is also prevalent, especially among older children.
 Factors Related to Child Maltreatment:
o Perpetrators: Over 80% of maltreatment is perpetrated by parents. Other
relatives and adult caregivers are also responsible for some cases.
o Risk Factors: Infants, toddlers, and preschoolers are most vulnerable to neglect
and physical abuse, while sexual abuse affects school-age children and
adolescents.

Prevention Strategies

 Prevention:
Preventing maltreatment involves increasing awareness of risk factors (e.g., parental
stress, poverty) and providing support systems for at-risk families. Public policy,
education, and community services can play significant roles in reducing child
maltreatment.

Origins of Child Maltreatment

 Early Research:
o Early findings linked child maltreatment to adult psychological disturbances
(Kempe et al., 1962).
o It was initially believed that child maltreatment was caused by a specific "abusive
personality type."
o Research revealed that not all parents who were abused as children become
abusers (Jaffee et al., 2013).
o Even "normal" parents can harm their children.
 Ecological Systems Theory:
o Researchers used ecological systems theory to understand child maltreatment.
o Child maltreatment results from interactions between family, community, and
cultural factors.
o The greater the number of risk factors, the higher the likelihood of maltreatment.

The Family

 Child Characteristics:
o Children with characteristics that make them more difficult to raise are more
likely to be abused, such as:
 Premature or sick babies.
  Difficult temperament, inattentiveness, overactivity, or developmental
problems.
o However, child characteristics alone slightly increase the risk of abuse.
 Parental Characteristics:
o Factors increasing the likelihood of abuse:
 Psychological disturbances.
 Alcohol or drug abuse.
 History of abuse in childhood.
 Belief in harsh physical discipline.
 Desire to satisfy unmet emotional needs through the child.
 Unrealistic expectations for child behavior.
 Young age (under 30), low education, and lack of parenting skills.
 Family Characteristics:
o Higher risk of abuse with:
 Low income or poverty.
 Marital instability and social isolation.
 Frequent moves, homelessness, large families, overcrowded living
conditions.
 Presence of nonbiological caregivers and disorganized households.
 Lack of steady employment and high life stress.

The Community

 Community Factors:
o Abusive parents are often isolated from social supports.
o They tend to live in run-down neighborhoods with few resources for families
(e.g., parks, child care centers, recreation centers).
o Lack of social connections and mistrust of others contribute to isolation.

The Larger Culture

 Cultural Factors:
o Cultural values, laws, and customs affect the likelihood of child maltreatment.
o Societies that approve of violence as a problem-solving method are more likely to
see child abuse.
o In the U.S., physical force is still widely accepted as a disciplinary measure.
o 23 European countries have banned corporal punishment, which reduces the
incidence of child maltreatment.
o Corporal punishment in schools is still allowed in the U.S., but 31 states and D.C.
have banned it.
Consequences of Child Maltreatment

 Developmental Impact:
o Maltreated children struggle with emotional self-regulation, empathy, social
skills, self-concept, and academic motivation.
o They experience serious adjustment problems, including:
 Cognitive deficits (e.g., impaired executive function).
 School failure, emotional and social difficulties.
 Increased risk for depression, aggression, substance abuse, and criminal
behavior.
 Cycle of Abuse:
o Hostile parent-child interactions often lead to severe consequences for abused
children.
o Partner abuse is commonly associated with child maltreatment.
o Abuse causes low self-esteem, anxiety, and emotional pain, potentially leading to
PTSD or suicide attempts in adolescence.
 Physiological Damage:
o Chronic abuse can cause brain damage, including:
 Reduced size and impaired functioning of the cerebral cortex, corpus
callosum, cerebellum, and hippocampus.
 Abnormal cortisol production (initially high, later low), which blunts the
child’s stress response.

Preventing Child Maltreatment

 Prevention Approaches:
o Efforts must target family, community, and societal levels.
o Social support programs (e.g., Parents Anonymous) help reduce isolation and
teach positive parenting skills.
o Early intervention programs like Healthy Families America aim to reduce
maltreatment by providing home visitation to at-risk families.
o Programs strengthen both parental and child skills, resulting in more supportive
parenting and lower levels of harsh discipline.
 Challenges and Hope:
o Despite intensive efforts, some parents continue abusive behaviors.
o An estimated 1,600 children die from maltreatment each year in the U.S.
o In cases where parents cannot change, termination of parental rights may be
necessary.
o There is optimism as strides are being made in understanding and preventing child
maltreatment.