1

21CSE253T- INTERNET OF
THINGS
Unit-2

Presented By
Mr. Parbhat Gupta
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
 Contents 2
IoT Access Technologies
Physical and MAC layers
Topology
Security of IEEE 802.15.4, 802.15.4g, 802.15.4e, 1901.2a, 802.11ah and LoRaWAN
Network Layer
IP versions
Constrained Nodes and Constrained Networks
Optimizing IP for IoT: From 6LoWPAN to 6Lo
Routing over Low Power and Lossy Networks
Application Transport Methods
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
Application Layer Protocols: CoAP and MQTT
 IoT Access Technologies 3

IoT (Internet of Things) access technologies enable devices to connect,

communicate, and exchange data over networks. Here are the primary IoT
access technologies:
Short-Range Wireless Technologies
Cellular Technologies
LPWAN (Low Power Wide Area Network)
Wired Technologies
Satellite Communication
 Cont.. 4
1. Short-Range Wireless Technologies
Wi-Fi: High-speed data transfer for home and office IoT devices like cameras,
thermostats, and smart speakers.
Bluetooth/BLE: Energy-efficient for wearables, health monitors, and home automation.
Zigbee/Z-Wave: Low-power, mesh networks for home automation and industrial IoT.

2. Cellular Technologies
4G/5G: Suitable for high-data IoT use cases like autonomous vehicles and remote
cameras.
NB-IoT: Low power, wide area for smart meters, tracking, and environmental sensors.
LTE-M: Optimized for mobile IoT applications like asset tracking and health monitors.
 Cont.. 5
3. LPWAN (Low Power Wide Area Network)
LoRaWAN: Long-range, low-power for agriculture, logistics, and city
applications.
Sigfox: Energy-efficient, low-cost for small data transfer like asset monitoring.
4. Wired Technologies
Ethernet: Reliable, high-speed for industrial IoT applications.
Power Line Communication (PLC): Data transmission over existing power lines,
used in smart grids and energy meters.
5. Satellite Communication
Ensures connectivity in remote areas for IoT applications like maritime monitoring,
agriculture, and disaster management.
 Physical and MAC layers 6

In IoT (Internet of Things) architecture, the PHY (Physical) and MAC

(Media Access Control) layers refer to the lower layers of the
communication stack responsible for establishing and managing the
physical connectivity and data transmission between IoT devices.
Physical Layer (PHY)
Medium Access Control (MAC) Layer
 Physical Layer (PHY) 7
The PHY layer is the lowest layer in the IoT communication stack and deals
with the physical transmission of data over the communication medium. It
defines the hardware and electrical specifications required for transmitting and
receiving signals. The PHY layer is responsible for aspects such as modulation,
coding, frequency bands, transmission power, and signal propagation. It ensures
reliable and efficient transmission of data between IoT devices.
Depending on the specific IoT deployment, various wireless technologies can be
used at the PHY layer, including Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, Z-Wave, LoRa,
Sigfox, Cellular (2G/3G/4G/5G), and others. Each technology has its own PHY
layer specifications, such as frequency ranges, transmission power levels, and
modulation techniques.
 Medium Access Control (MAC) Layer 8
The MAC layer resides above the PHY layer and is responsible for managing access
to the shared communication medium and handling data packet transmission between
IoT devices. It defines protocols and rules for devices to access the medium, avoiding
collisions and ensuring fair and efficient utilization of the available bandwidth.
The MAC layer controls the timing, synchronization, and channel access methods for
IoT devices. It can use various techniques such as contention-based access (e.g.,
CSMA/CA - Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance), time-based
access (e.g., TDMA - Time Division Multiple Access), or scheduled access (e.g.,
FDMA - Frequency Division Multiple Access) depending on the specific technology
being used.
Additionally, the MAC layer may handle functions such as packet fragmentation,
error detection, acknowledgments, and retransmissions to ensure reliable data
transmission in the presence of interference or other communication challenges.
 Topology 9

In the Internet of Things (IoT), topology refers to the

physical and logical layout of a network. It defines how
devices are connected and how data flows through the
network.
Physical topology
Logical topology
Best Topology
 Physical Topology 10

Star topology: A common topology where devices are connected to a central

hub. Ex- Smart homes, wearable devices, and Wi-Fi-based IoT networks.
Bus topology: A topology where all devices are connected to a central cable.
Ex- Industrial automation and legacy IoT systems.
Mesh topology: A topology where devices are connected to multiple other
devices, allowing for multiple paths for data to travel. Ex- Smart cities,
industrial IoT (IIoT), and Zigbee or Thread-based networks.
Ring topology: A topology where devices are connected in a ring, with each
device connected to exactly two neighboring devices.
 Logical Topology & Best Topology 11
Protocols: The protocols used to transfer data between devices.
Routing algorithms: The algorithms used to determine the best path for
data transfer.
Security measures: The measures in place to protect data as it moves
through the network.
The best topology depends on the specific requirements of the application
and the environment. For example, a star mesh combined topology can
balance scalability and reliability.
 Security (IEEE Standards in IoT) 12
For data security, the IEEE 802.15.4 standard employs the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) with a
128-bit key length as the basic encryption technique. Activating such security measures for 802.15.4
significantly alters the frame format and uses a few of the payloads. The very first phase in activating AES
encryption is to use the Security Enabled field in the Frame Control part of the 802.15.4 header. For safety,
this field is a single bit which is assigned to 1. When this bit is set, by taking certain bytes from its Payload
field, a field known as the Auxiliary Security Header is formed following the Source Address field.
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) has developed several standards that are
foundational for IoT networks, focusing on communication, interoperability, and energy efficiency. Some
IEEE standards in IoT are-
IEEE 802.15.4
IEEE 802.15.4g
IEEE 802.15.4e
IEEE 1901.2a
IEEE 802.11ah
 IEEE 802.15.4 13
IEEE 802.15.4 is a low-cost, low-data-rate wireless access technology for devices
that are operated or work on batteries. This describes how low-rate wireless
personal area networks (LR-WPANs) function.
Low Power Consumption: Optimized for battery-powered IoT devices to extend operational
life.
Data Rate: Supports rates of up to 250 kbps, sufficient for sensor and control applications.
Frequency Bands: Operates in ISM bands, including: 2.4 GHz (global), 868 MHz (Europe), 915
MHz (North America).
Topology Support: Enables star, mesh, and tree topologies, enhancing flexibility for various IoT
use cases.
Addressing: Supports both 16-bit short addresses and 64-bit extended addresses, ensuring
scalability.
Applications: Smart Homes, Industrial IoT (IIoT), Smart Agriculture, Healthcare.
 IEEE 802.15.4g 14
IEEE 802.15.4g is a wireless technology standard that's used on the Internet of
Things (IoT) for low-power, low-speed communication between devices. It's used in
smart metering, smart city applications, and logistic tracking.
PHY Layer Enhancements: Supports multiple modulation schemes (e.g., FSK, OFDM, and
OQPSK).Operates in sub-GHz frequency bands (e.g., 433 MHz, 868 MHz, 915 MHz) for longer
range and better penetration.
Data rates: 40 kbps to 1 Mbps, depending on the modulation and region.
Scalability: Designed to support networks with thousands of devices. Suitable for IoT systems like
smart meters and city-wide sensors.
Global Compliance: Aligns with regional frequency regulations (e.g., FCC in the US, ETSI in
Europe).
Application: Smart Grids, Smart Cities, Industrial IoT.
 IEEE 802.15.4e 15
IEEE 802.15.4e is an enhanced version of the IEEE 802.15.4 standard, specifically designed to
address the unique requirements of IoT applications like industrial automation and low-power,
high-reliability communication.
Time-Slotted Channel Hopping (TSCH): Introduces time synchronization for devices, ensuring
predictable communication and avoiding collisions. Channel hopping reduces interference and
improves reliability in noisy environments.
Deterministic Communication: Supports applications requiring real-time data delivery with low
latency. Suitable for industrial IoT (IIoT) scenarios like process automation.
Energy Efficiency: Optimized for low-power devices with features like duty cycling and sleep
scheduling. Extends the battery life of IoT nodes.
Improved Reliability: Uses frequency diversity (via channel hopping) to mitigate interference
and multipath fading. Ensures reliable operation even in dense, industrial environments.
Application: Industrial IoT (IIoT), Smart Grids, Environmental Monitoring, Healthcare IoT.
 IEEE 1901.2a 16
IEEE 1901.2a is an amendment to the IEEE 1901.2 standard, focusing on narrowband power line
communication (PLC) for IoT applications. It enhances communication over power lines by
addressing reliability, scalability, and energy efficiency, making it suitable for IoT use cases like
smart grids and home automation.
Narrowband PLC: Operates in lower frequency ranges (10 kHz–500 kHz), which ensures
long-range communication. Ideal for smart metering and IoT networks in low-voltage and
medium-voltage power lines.
Improved Interoperability: Enhances compatibility between devices from different vendors.
Supports coexistence with other PLC standards like G3-PLC and PRIME (Powerline Intelligent
Metering Evolution).
High Reliability: Designed for low-latency communication and robust data transmission, even in
noisy powerline environments. Ensures reliable connectivity in critical infrastructure IoT
systems.
Applications: Smart Grids, Smart Cities, Home Automation.
 IEEE 802.11ah 17

IEEE 802.11ah, also known as Wi-Fi HaLow, is a low-power, long-range wireless standard
specifically designed to meet the needs of IoT applications.
Sub-GHz Operation: Operates in the unlicensed sub-1 GHz spectrum (e.g., 900 MHz),
allowing for extended range and better penetration through walls and obstacles.
Low Power Consumption: Optimized for energy-efficient communication, making it
ideal for battery-powered IoT devices.
Long Range: Supports communication up to 1 kilometer or more in open environments,
making it suitable for outdoor IoT use cases.
High Device Density: Handles thousands of devices in a single network, addressing
scalability needs for IoT.
Application: Smart Agriculture, Smart Cities, Home Automation, Industrial IoT (IIoT).
 LoRaWAN 18
LoRaWAN (Long Range Wide Area Network) is a communication protocol built on LoRa (Long
Range) modulation technology, specifically designed for IoT applications requiring low power
consumption, long-range communication, and scalability.
Long-Range Communication: Provides a range of up to 10-15 km in rural areas and 2-5 km in
urban environments.
Low Power Consumption: Optimized for battery-operated devices, ensuring years of operation
on a single battery.
Scalability: Supports thousands of devices within a single network, making it suitable for
large-scale IoT deployments.
Frequency Bands: LoRaWAN operates in license-free ISM bands in EU: 868 MHz, US: 915
MHz, Asia: 433 MHz
Application: Smart Cities, Agriculture, Industrial IoT, Healthcare.
 Network Layer 19
The network layer in the Internet of Things (IoT) is the layer that transmits data between
devices and applications. It's also known as the transmission or device layer. The network
layer receives data collected by sensors from physical objects. It forwards the data packets to
the appropriate destination. The network layer can use wireless or wired connections.
Routing: Determines the optimal path for data to travel from the source to the destination,
whether it’s a point-to-point or multi-hop path.
Addressing: Assigns unique identifiers (e.g., IP addresses or MAC addresses) to devices,
enabling communication between them.
Data Forwarding: Transmits data packets from one node to another, ensuring the proper
delivery to the receiving device.
Error Handling: Manages any data corruption or loss during transmission, ensuring
reliable communication.
Difference 20
 Network Layer Protocols 21
IP: A widely used protocol for addressing and routing data packets.
6LoWPAN: A protocol designed for low-power wireless networks.
HTTP: A technology used to facilitate transmission between
applications and devices.
MQTT: A technology used to facilitate transmission between
applications and devices.
AMQP: A technology used to facilitate transmission between
applications and devices.
 IP- Versions 22

The Internet Protocol (IP) versions used in the Internet of Things (IoT) are
IPv4 and IPv6. IP is a set of rules that allow devices to communicate with
each other over the internet.
IPv4 (Internet Protocol Version 4)
IPv6 (Internet Protocol Version 6)
6LoWPAN (IPv6 over Low Power Wireless Personal Area Networks)
 IPv4 (Internet Protocol Version 4) 23

IPv4 refers to the widely used "Internet Protocol version 4," which is the primary protocol used to
assign unique addresses to devices connecting to the internet, allowing them to communicate with
each other by sending data packets across networks; however, due to its limited address space, the
industry is gradually transitioning to IPv6 for large-scale IoT deployments where a vast number of
devices need to be connected.
IPv4 is the fourth iteration of the internet protocol. It has been key for enabling internet
communication. It uses 32-bit addresses and provides the foundation for routing data packets between
networks.
 IPv6 (Internet Protocol Version 6) 24

IPv6, or Internet Protocol Version 6, is crucial for the Internet of Things (IoT) because it provides a
vastly expanded address space compared to its predecessor, IPv4, allowing for a significantly larger
number of devices to be connected to the internet simultaneously, which is essential for the massive
scale of IoT deployments where billions of devices may need unique IP addresses; this makes IPv6 the
preferred protocol for connecting IoT devices due to its ability to handle the sheer volume of
connected devices with unique identifiers.
The Internet Protocol version 6, or IPv6, is the latest version of the Internet Protocol (IP), which is the
system used for identifying and locating computers on the Internet. IPv6 was developed by the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) to deal with the problem of IPv4 exhaustion. IPv6 is a 128-bit address
having an address space of 2128, which is way bigger than IPv4. IPv6 uses a Hexa-Decimal format
separated by a colon (:).
 6LoWPAN 25
6LoWPAN (IPv6 over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Networks) is a protocol that allows the
transmission of IPv6 packets over low-power, low-data-rate wireless networks. It is widely used in the
Internet of Things (IoT) to enable resource-constrained devices to communicate efficiently.

Header Compression: It reduces the overhead of IPv6 headers, making it suitable for constrained
devices.
Fragmentation: Splits large packets into smaller fragments to fit the IEEE 802.15.4 frame size.
Mesh Routing: Supports multi-hop communication for extended network coverage.
Applications: Smart homes and cities, Environmental monitoring, Industrial automation.
 Constrained Nodes 26

Constrained nodes are devices in an IoT network with limited resources, such as
memory, power, and processing capacity. They are often used as sensors, smart
objects, or actuators.
Limited resources: Constrained nodes have limited memory, processing power, and
power.
Low power consumption: Constrained nodes use minimal power input, often
relying on batteries.
Network constraints: Constrained nodes may have unreliable channels, limited
bandwidth, and a dynamic topology.
Lack of advanced services: Constrained nodes may lack advanced network services
like broadcast and multicast.
Applications: Air traffic control, Agricultural automation, Smart home devices,
Industrial sensors.
 Constrained Networks 27

A constrained network in IoT is a network made up of constrained

nodes, which are devices with limited resources. These networks are
often used in the edge network of an IoT system.

Low Bandwidth: Typically, constrained networks use technologies like

LPWAN, Zigbee, and 6LoWPAN, which offer low data rates to save power.
High Latency: Devices may operate intermittently or in sleep modes, leading
to delays in data transmission.
Limited Range: Constrained devices often have a limited communication
range, requiring multi-hop or mesh networking for wider coverage.
Examples: Zigbee, LoRaWAN, NB-IoT.
Cont.. 28
 Optimizing IP From 6LoWPAN to 6Lo 29

Optimizing IP for IoT from 6LoWPAN to 6Lo involves reducing the size of
IPv6 headers and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) headers. This is done
through header compression and by omitting some standard header fields.

Header compression: Reduces the size of IPv6 headers and UDP headers. In
some cases, the combined size of the headers can be reduced to as little as 6 bytes.
Omitting standard header fields: 6LoWPAN assumes commonly used values for
some standard header fields.
Shared information: 6LoWPAN takes advantage of shared information known by
all nodes in a local network.
IETF 6Lo working group: This group is working to adapt IPv6 over new
communication technologies for the Internet of Things (IoT).
 Routing over Low Power 30

Routing in low-power IoT networks involves designing protocols that efficiently

manage data transmission while considering the resource constraints of devices, such
as limited power, processing capabilities, and memory. These routing protocols are
typically optimized for low data rates, intermittent connectivity, and energy efficiency.

Energy Efficiency: Minimize energy consumption to extend device battery life.

Scalability: Handle a large number of devices in dense IoT environments.
Low Overhead: Reduce protocol overhead to save bandwidth and processing
power.
Fault Tolerance: Support reliable communication despite device or network
failures.
 Common Routing Protocols 31

RPL (Routing Protocol for Low-power and Lossy Networks)

• Standardized by IETF for constrained IoT networks.
• Builds a DODAG (Destination-Oriented Directed Acyclic Graph) to optimize routing paths.
• Uses Objective Functions like energy and link reliability to choose routes.
• Well-suited for applications like smart grids and industrial IoT.
• RFC 6550: RPL Protocol

6LoWPAN Mesh Routing

• Adapts IPv6 routing to constrained low-power wireless networks.
• Focuses on integrating IPv6 packets with IEEE 802.15.4 standards.

CoAP-Based Routing
• Leverages CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol) for end-to-end communication in small
networks.
• Designed for resource-constrained devices communicating over low-power links.
 Lossy Networks 32

A "lossy network" in IoT refers to a network composed of low-power devices with unreliable
connections, often experiencing high packet loss due to factors like weak signal strength, interference,
or long transmission distances, making it challenging to reliably send data across the network; this type
of network is typically called a "Low Power and Lossy Network (LLN)" and is commonly used in IoT
applications where energy conservation is critical, like sensor networks.

High Packet Loss: Due to interference, noise, or weak signals, leading to unreliable
communication.
Low Data Rate: Limited bandwidth restricts the amount of data transmitted.
Dynamic Topology: Frequent changes in network structure caused by device mobility, failures, or
energy-saving modes.
Energy Constraints: Devices often operate on batteries, necessitating energy-efficient
communication.
Applications: Environmental monitoring (e.g., forest fire detection), Smart agriculture (e.g., soil
and weather sensors), Industrial IoT (e.g., factory automation with interference).
 Lossy Networks Protocols 33

RPL (Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks):

• Specifically designed for IoT lossy networks.
• Uses DODAG (Destination-Oriented Directed Acyclic Graph) for optimized routing.
• Adaptable to metrics like link reliability and energy efficiency.
• RFC 6550

6LoWPAN:
• Facilitates IPv6 communication in lossy wireless networks.
• Reduces header overhead and handles packet fragmentation efficiently.

CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol):

• Lightweight protocol for reliable communication in lossy environments.
• Supports retransmissions and acknowledgment mechanisms.
 Application Transport Methods 34

Application transport methods in IoT refer to protocols and mechanisms used to transfer data
between IoT devices and applications. These methods are designed to handle the unique
constraints of IoT environments, such as limited bandwidth, power efficiency, and scalability.

Common IoT Transport Layer Protocols

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

• Reliable, connection-oriented protocol ensuring packet delivery.
• Suitable for applications where data integrity is critical, such as firmware updates.
• Less efficient in lossy networks due to retransmissions and high overhead.

UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

• Lightweight, connectionless protocol with minimal overhead.
• Ideal for time-sensitive applications like real-time monitoring.
• Does not guarantee packet delivery or order, making it suitable for lossy networks.
 Supervisory Control and Data acquisition 35

“Supervisory Control” refers to a system where a central computer monitors and manages various
connected devices across a network, allowing for high-level control and adjustments to operations
based on real-time data collected from sensors, essentially acting as a "watchdog" over the entire IoT
system; this is often implemented using a technology called SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition) which provides a user interface to oversee and manipulate the connected devices remotely.

“Data acquisition” refers to involves collecting and digitizing data from various physical devices,
sensors, and actuators for analysis and decision-making. This process typically includes sensing
physical parameters like temperature, humidity, or motion, converting the data into digital signals using
ADCs (Analog-to-Digital Converters), and transmitting it over a network for storage or processing. IoT
systems employ protocols like MQTT, CoAP, or HTTP for secure and efficient data transfer, often
leveraging gateways to preprocess and aggregate data before it reaches cloud platforms or edge
devices. Effective data acquisition ensures real-time monitoring, automation, and actionable insights for
diverse IoT applications like smart cities, industrial automation, and healthcare.
 Application Layer Protocols 36

Application layer protocols enable communication, data exchange, and management between IoT
devices and applications. These protocols are designed to handle constraints such as limited power,
bandwidth, and processing capacity, ensuring efficient and reliable operations in IoT ecosystems.
There are many protocols in application layer are-

CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol)

MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport)
HTTP/HTTPS
AMQP (Advanced Message Queuing Protocol)
DDS (Data Distribution Service)
XMPP (Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol)
 CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol) 37

Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP) is an application layer protocol designed for

resource-constrained devices and networks, particularly in the context of the Internet of Things (IoT).

Client-Server Model: CoAP model is essentially a client/server model enabling the client to
request for service from server as needed and the server responds to client's request.
Resource-Oriented: CoAP treats various objects in the network as resources, each uniquely
identified by a URI (Uniform Resource Identifier). Clients can request information about these
resources, and servers provide responses.
Methods: CoAP supports several methods similar to HTTP: GET, POST, DELETE, PUT.
Asynchronous Messaging: CoAP messages are asynchronous because it uses the User Datagram
Protocol (UDP). Unlike TCP-based protocols, CoAP does not require acknowledgments for every
message, which helps conserve energy in resource-constrained devices.
Energy Efficiency: CoAP is designed to minimize energy consumption while simplifying
communication between clients and devices. It achieves this by managing resources, providing
device descriptions, and supporting mechanisms to determine if a device is powered on or off.
Message Format of CoAP 38
 MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport) 39

MQTT is a lightweight, publish-subscribe-based messaging protocol designed for constrained

devices and low-bandwidth, high-latency, or unreliable networks. It was originally developed by
IBM and is now an open standard governed by OASIS. MQTT is widely used in IoT applications
for its simplicity, efficiency, and reliability.

Publish-Subscribe Model: Devices (publishers) send data to topics on a broker, and other
devices (subscribers) receive data by subscribing to those topics. Decouples communication
between devices for flexibility and scalability.
Lightweight and Efficient: Minimal header size, making it ideal for constrained devices and
low-bandwidth networks.
QoS Levels: QoS 0: At most once (no delivery guarantee). QoS 1: At least once (delivery
guaranteed but duplicates possible). QoS 2: Exactly once (ensures no duplicates).
Retained Messages: Brokers can store the last message for a topic, ensuring new subscribers
immediately receive the latest data.
Will Message: Ensures a predefined message is sent if a client unexpectedly disconnects.
Architecture of MQTT 40
 41

Thank You