EBE 204 Electrical Engineering I Lecture Notes by S. Roy EBE 204 Electrical Engineering I Lecture Notes by S.

Roy

4 Power in AC Circuits Active Power

At any given instant, the power to a load is equal to the product of voltage times current. Since p represents the power flowing to the load, its average will be the average power

This means that if voltage and current vary with time, so will power. This time-varying to the load. Denote this average by the letter P. If P is positive, then, on average, more

power is referred to as instantaneous power and is given the symbol p(t) or just p. Thus, power flows to the load than is returned from it. (If P is zero, all power sent to the
load is returned.) Thus, if P has a positive value, it represents the power that is really
p = vi (watts) dissipated by the load. For this reason, P is called real power. In modern terminology,
real power is also called active power. Thus, active power is the average value of the
Now consider the case of sinusoidal ac. Since voltage and current are positive at various
instantaneous power, and the terms real power, active power, and average power
times during their cycle and negative at others, instantaneous power may also be positive
mean the same thing.
at some times and negative at others. This is illustrated in Figure 4.1, where we have
multiplied voltage times current point by point to get the power waveform. For example,
Reactive Power
Consider again Figure 4.1. During the intervals that p is negative, power is being returned
from the load. (This can only happen if the load contains reactive elements: L or C.)
The portion of power that flows into the load then back out is called reactive power.
Since it first flows one way then the other, its average value is zero; thus, reactive power
contributes nothing to the average power to the load. Although reactive power does no
useful work, it cannot be ignored. Extra current is required to create reactive power,
and this current must be supplied by the source; this also means that conductors, circuit
breakers, switches, transformers, and other equipment must be made physically larger
Figure 4.1: Instantaneous power in an ac circuit
to handle the extra current. This increases the cost of a system. At this point, it should
be noted that real power and reactive power do not exist as separate entities. Rather,
from t = 0 s to t = t1 , v and i are both positive; therefore, power is positive. At t = t1
they are components of the power waveform shown in Figure 4.1. However, as you will
, v = 0 V and thus p = 0 W.
see, we are able to conceptually separate them for purposes of analysis.
From t1 to t2 , i is positive and v is negative; therefore, p is negative. From t2 to t3 ,
both v and i are negative; therefore power is positive, and so on.
A positive value for p means that power transfer is in the direction of the reference
arrow), while a negative value means that it is in the opposite direction. Thus, during
positive parts of the power cycle, power flows from the source to the load, while during
negative parts, it flows out of the load back into the circuit.
The waveform of Figure 4.1 is the actual power waveform.
The key aspects of power flow embodied in this waveform can be described in terms of
active power, reactive power, and apparent power.

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EBE 204 Electrical Engineering I Lecture Notes by S. Roy EBE 204 Electrical Engineering I Lecture Notes by S. Roy

4.1 Power to a Resistive Load 4.2 Power to an Inductive Load

Consider power to a purely resistive load (Figure 4.2). Here, current is in phase with For a purely inductive load as shown in 4.3, current lags voltage by 90o . If we select
voltage. Assume i = Im sin ωt and v = Vm sin ωt. Then, current as reference, i = Im sin ωt and v = Vm sin(ωt + 90o )
Vm Im
p = vi = (Vm sin ωt)(Im sin ωt) = Vm Im sin2 ωt p= (1 − cos 2ωt)
2
1
Using the trigonometric relationship sin2 ωt = (1 − cos 2ωt). Therefore;
2
Vm Im
p= (1 − cos 2ωt)
2

Figure 4.3: Power to a purely inductive load.

Figure 4.2: Power to a purely resistive load.
A sketch of p versus time (obtained by multiplying v times i) then looks as shown in
A sketch of p versus time is shown in (b). Note that p is always positive (except where Figure 4.3(b). During the first quarter-cycle, p is positive and hence power flows to the
it is momentarily zero). This means that power flows only from the source to the load. inductance, while during the second quarter-cycle, p is negative and all power transferred
Since none is ever returned, all power delivered by the source is absorbed by the load. to the inductance during the first quarter-cycle flows back out. Similarly for the third
We therefore conclude that power to a pure resistance consists of active power only. Note and fourth quarter-cycles.
also that the frequency of the power waveform is double (2ωt) that of the voltage and Thus, the average power to an inductance over a full cycle is zero, i.e., there are no power
current waveforms. losses associated with a pure inductance.
Figure 4.2 shows that the average power lies half way between zero and its peak value Consequently, PL = 0 W and the only power flowing in the circuit is reactive power.
of Vm Im . That is (P = Vm Im /2). This is true in general, that is, the power that flows into and out of a pure inductance is
√
Since V (the magnitude of the rms value of voltage) is Vm / 2 and I (the magnitude of reactive power only.
√
the rms value of current) is Im / 2, this can be written as P = V I. To determine this power, with i = Im sin ωt and v = Vm sin(ωt + 90o );
Thus, average power to a purely resistive load is; pL = vi = Vm Im sin(ωt + 90o ) sin ωt
V2
P = V I = I 2R = (watts) Allying trigonometric expression (sin(a + b) = sin a cos b + sin b cos a)
R
Vm I m
Thus the active power relationships for resistive circuits are the same for AC and DC. pL = Vm Im sin ωt cos ωt = sin 2ωt = V I sin 2ωt
2
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EBE 204 Electrical Engineering I Lecture Notes by S. Roy EBE 204 Electrical Engineering I Lecture Notes by S. Roy

where V and I are the magnitudes of the rms values of the voltage and current respec- the power returned to the circuit by the capacitance is exactly equal to that delivered
tively. to it by the source. This means that the average power to a capacitance over a full cycle
The product VI is defined as reactive power and is given the symbol QL . Because is zero, i.e., there are no power losses associated with a pure capacitance. Consequently,
it represents ”power” that alternately flows into, then out of the inductance, QL con- PC = 0 W and the only power flowing in the circuit is reactive power. This is true in
tributes nothing to the average power to the load and, as noted earlier, is sometimes general, that is, the power that flows into and out of a pure capacitance is reactive power
referred to as wattless power.However, reactive power is of major concern in the oper- only.
ation of electrical power systems. Since QL is the product of voltage times current, its This reactive power is given by;
unit is the volt-amp (VA). To indicate that QL represents reactive volt-amps, an ”R” is
pC = vi = Vm Im sin ωt sin(ωt − 90o )
appended to yield a new unit, the VAR (volt-amps reactive). Thus,
which reduces to
V2
QL = V I = I 2 X L = (VAR)
XL pC = −V I sin 2ωt
By convention, QL is taken to be positive. Thus, if I = 4 A and XL = 2Ω, then
where V and I are the magnitudes of the rms values of the voltage and current respec-
QL = +32 VAR.
tively. Now define the product V I as QC . This product represents reactive power. That
Note that the VAR (like the watt) is a scalar quantity with magnitude only and no angle.
is,
V2
QC = V I = I 2 X C = (VAR)
4.3 Power to an Capacitive Load XC
By convention, reactive power to capacitance is defined as negative.
For a purely capacitive load, current leads voltage by 90o . Taking current as reference,
o Example: For each circuit of Figure 4.5, determine real and reactive power.
i = Im sin ωt and v = Vm sin(ωt − 90 ). Multiplication of v times i yields the power curve
of Figure 175.

Figure 4.5: Reactive Power Example.

100 V
a. I = Ω = 4 A. P = V I = (100V )(4A) = 400 W. Q = 0 VAR
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100 V
b. I = Ω = 5 A. Q = V I = (100V )(5A) = 500 VAR (ind.). P = 0 W
20
Figure 4.4: Power to a purely capacitive load. 100 V
c. I = Ω = 2.5 A. Q = V I = (100V )(2.5A) = 250 VAR (cap.) .P = 0 W
40
Note that negative and positive loops of the power wave are identical; thus, over a cycle, The answer for (c) can also be expressed as Q = - 250 VAR.

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EBE 204 Electrical Engineering I Lecture Notes by S. Roy EBE 204 Electrical Engineering I Lecture Notes by S. Roy

4.4 Apparent Power with magnitudes of VR and VL replaced by IR and IXL respectively. Now multiply all
quantities by I. This yields sides of I 2 R, I 2 XL , and hypotenuse V I as indicated in (b).
When a load has voltage V across it and current I through it, the power that appears to
Note that these represent P, Q, and S respectively as indicated in (c). This is called the
flow to it is VI. However, if the load contains both resistance and reactance, this product
power triangle. From the geometry of this triangle, you can see that
represents neither real power nor reactive power. Since it appears to represent power,
it is called apparent power. Apparent power is given the symbol S and has units of
volt-amperes (VA). Thus,

V2
S = V I = I 2Z = (VA)
Z

Apparent power, S, is an important quantity since a.c. apparatus, such as generators,

transformers and cables, is usually rated in voltamperes rather than in watts. For small Figure 4.7: Steps in the development of the power triangle (continued).
equipment (such as found in electronics), VA is a convenient unit. However, for heavy
power apparatus, it is too small and kVA (kilovolt-amps) is frequently used. The rating 
S= P 2 + Q2L
of a machine is defined as the maximum apparent power that it is designed to carry
continuously without overheating. Alternatively, the relationship between P, Q, and S may be expressed as a complex
number:
4.5 The Relationship Between P, Q, and S
S = P + jQL = S∠θ
They are related by a very simple relationship through the power triangle.
If the circuit is capacitive instead of inductive, the equation becomes
4.5.1 The Power Triangle
S = P − jQC
Consider the series circuit of Figure 4.6(a). Let the current through the circuit be
I = I∠0o , with phasor representation (b). The voltages across the resistor and inductance The power triangle in this case has a negative imaginary part as indicated in Figure 4.5

are VR and VL respectively. As noted VR is in phase with I, while VL leads it by 90o . (d) The power relationships may be written in generalized forms as

Kirchhoff’s voltage law applies for ac voltages in phasor form. Thus, V = VR + VL

S = P + Q = VI*
as indicated in (c). The voltage triangle of (c) may be redrawn as in Figure 4.7(a)
where P = P ∠0o , QL = jQL , QC = −jQC , and I* is the conjugate of current I. These
relationships hold true for all networks regardless of what they contain or how they are
configured. When solving problems involving power, remember that P values can be
added to get PT , and Q values to get QT (where Q is positive for inductive elements
and negative for capacitive). However, apparent power values cannot be added to get
ST , i.e., ST = S1 + S2 + · · · + SN . Instead, determine PT and QT , then use the power
triangle to obtain ST .
Figure 4.6: Steps in the development of the power triangle.

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EBE 204 Electrical Engineering I Lecture Notes by S. Roy EBE 204 Electrical Engineering I Lecture Notes by S. Roy

Practise Example 4.6 Power Factor

A generator supplies power to an electric heater, an inductive element, and a capacitor From the power triangle it can be seen that P and Q may be expressed respectively as;
as in Figure 4.8.
P = V I cos θ = S cos θ (W) and Q = V I sin θ = S sin θ (VAR)
a. Find P and Q for each load.
where V and I are the magnitudes of the rms values of the voltage and current respectively
b. Find total active and reactive power supplied by the generator. and θ is the angle between them.

c. Draw the power triangle for the combined loads and determine total apparent The Power Factor (pf ) is the the ratio of the real power to the apparent power. Clearly,

power. it can be seen that it is the quantity cos θ

P P
d. Find the current supplied by the generator. p.f. = = cos θ and θ = cos−1 =
S S

For a pure resistance, V and I are in phase, therefore, θ = 0o . For a pure inductance,
θ = 90o ; for a pure capacitance, θ = −90o . For a circuit containing both resistance
and inductance, θ will be somewhere between 0o and 90o ; for a circuit containing both
resistance and capacitance, θ will be somewhere between 0o and −90o .

Unity, Lagging, and Leading Power Factor

As indicated, a load’s power factor shows how much of its apparent power is actually
Figure 4.8: Apperent Power Example. real power. For example, for a purely resistive circuit, θ = 0o and p.f. = cos 0o = 1.0.
Therefore, P = V I (watts) and all the load’s apparent power is real power. This case
(p.f. = 1.0) is referred to as unity power factor.
For a load containing only resistance and inductance, the load current lags voltage. The
power factor in this case is described as lagging. On the other hand, for a load con-
taining only resistance and capacitance, current leads voltage and the power factor is
described as leading.
Thus, an inductive circuit has a lagging power factor, while a capacitive circuit has a
lead ing power factor.

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EBE 204 Electrical Engineering I Lecture Notes by S. Roy EBE 204 Electrical Engineering I Lecture Notes by S. Roy

4.7 Series and Parallel AC Circuits AC Parallel Circuits

AC Series Circuits For any network of n admittances as shown in Figure 4.11, the total admittance is the
vector sum of the admittances of the network. Mathematically, the total admittance of
For a series ac circuit consisting of n impedances, as shown in Figure 4.9, the total
a network is given as
impedance of the circuit is found as the vector sum

YT = Y 1 + Y 2 + · · · + Y n
ZT = Z 1 + Z2 + · · · + Z n

The impedance (Z) can be resistive inductive or capacitive.

Figure 4.9: series impedance.

Figure 4.11: Parallel impedance.

Practise Example The resultant impedance of a parallel network of n impedances is determined to be

Consider the network of Figure 4.10. 1 1

= 1 1 1 (Ω)
Y 1 + Y 2 + · · · + Yn Z1
+ Z2
+ ··· + Zn
a. Find ZT .
Practise Example
b. Sketch the impedance diagram for the network and indicate whether the total
Find the equivalent admittance and impedance of the network of Figure 4.12. Sketch
impedance of the circuit is inductive, capacitive, or resistive.
the admittance diagram
c. Use Ohms law to determine I, VR , and VC .

Figure 4.12: Parallel AC Power Example.

Figure 4.10: Seies AC Power Example.

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