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Definitions of Science

● An organized body of knowledge gathered

● Knowledge or a system covering general truths.

Scientific Method

1. Identifying the problem (Questioning)

2. Gathering Preliminary data
3. Formulating a hypothesis*
4. Testing of the hypothesis
5. Analysis and Interpretation of data
6. Drawing of Conclusion

Independent Variable – variable changed by the experimenter

Dependent Variable – variable that responds to the variable that is changed in the experiment.

Experimental group – groups that receive treatment.

Control group – opposite of Experimental.

● hypothesis – it is what we think the answer to the question

Laws and Theories

*Scientific law – a description of a natural occurrence

*Scientific theory – a reasonable explanation of a scientific law.

*Model – helps visualizeju objects that cannot be observed directly.

Note: Scientific laws and theories cannot be proven absolutely. They are maintained as all
observations support them.

Measurements

● In science, the metric system is used in all measurements for its convenience and
simplicity.
● The International System of Units (SI) uses the seven base quantities and units given
below:

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 Physical Quantity Unit Name (symbol)
Mass Kilogram, kg
Length Meter, m
Time Second, s
Amount of Substance Mole, mol
Temperature Kelvin, K
Electric current Ampere, A
Luminous intensity Candela, cd

A. Reading Metric Measurements

No. of significant digits = no. of certain digits + one certain digit (0 or 5)

Example 1: The diagram below is a metric ruler used to measure the length of a pencil. How long
is the pencil?

The smallest fraction of a centimeter in the metric ruler is 0.1 cm. This corresponds to the
last certain digit in any measurement. The pointer reads 9.0 cm. One uncertain digit should be
added. In this case it is 0.

Answer: Length of pencil = 9.00 cm

B. Converting Metric Units

Conversion of metric units is easily performed,

Mega 106
Kilo 103
Deka 102
Hector 101
Base unit 100
Deci 10-1
Centi 10-2
Milli 10-3
Micro 10-6

Example 2: How many grams are there in 37.d centigrams?

● To convert 37.5 cg to grams, count the number of steps from centi to base unit. Since it
moves upward, the movement of the decimal point is to the left.

Answer: 0.375 g

Major Regions of the Earth

1. Lithosphere – the solid part and the largest portion of the earth
2. Hydrosphere – the liquid part. It covers about 71% of the earth’s surface
3. Atmosphere – the gaseous portion that envelops the earth
4. Biosphere – the region where living things are found.

Rocks and Minerals

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 Everywhere you look, you find rocks of different shapes and sizes.

● Igneous rocks – formed from hardened magma and lava.

Example: Rhyolite, Granite, Basalt, etc.

● Sedimentary rocks – form from deposited fragments or particles of other rocks

Example: limestone, conglomerate, dolomite, shale

● Metamorphic rocks – rocks that have undergone changes due to heat and pressure

Example: marble (from limestone), slate(from shale)

* Rocks are made up of minerals which are either elements or compounds.

WEATHERING

Weathering
is a term for all processes which combine to cause the disintegration and chemical alteration of
rocks

Erosion
includes all the process of loosening, removal, and transportation which tend to wear away the
earth’s surface.

Lithification
is the conversion of unconsolidated sediment into solid rock.

Weather and Climate

Meteorology – the study of the earth’s atmosphere, weather and climate

Weather – the daily condition of the earth’s atmosphere

Climate – general conditions of temperature and precipitation in a large area over a long period of
time.

Gases found in the atmosphere:

a. Nitrogen – about 78%

- used by living things for the manufacture of proteins
- is returned to the atmosphere by the process of decay
b.
c. Oxygen – 21%
-used for respiration
-for combustion processes
c. Other gases – (water vapor, CO2, O3)

Layers in the atmosphere

1. Troposphere – layer where life exists
- where different weather conditions prevail
- has lowest temperature
2. Stratosphere – contains ozone that serves as a protective shield against UV rays.

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 - where jetstream is found

3. Mesosphere – layer where meteoroids that enter the earth’s atmosphere are burned.
4. Ionosphere – contains ions that are used for radio communications
5. Exosphere – orbit space for artificial satellites.

● The uneven temperature and pressure in the atmosphere result in the movement of air
called WINDS.
● Monsoons are examples of winds that result from the differences in the absorption and
reflection of thermal energy by different materials of Earth.

Ecology

1. Ecology – the study of how living things interact with their environment.

2. Ecological Factors

biotic – all living factors in the environment

abiotic – nonliving factors that are essential to living organisms

3. Population – a group of the same species living together

4. Community – all the different populations living togethe

5. Ecosystem – community of different living things interacting with one another

6. Biomes – a large area whose ecological communities are determined by its climate.

Solar System

•The probable origin of our solar system, specifically the sun, is similar to that of other stars.

•The age of a star is related to its temperature and its color.

•Bluish and white stars are the hottest and youngest stars.

•The least hot and the oldest star are the reddish stars.

Nebular theory – states that the solar system originated from a rotating gas and dust cloud
composed of hydrogen, helium and some heavier elements.

Ptolemaic Theory – The earth is stationary; each planet and the sun revolved around the
earth.

Copernican Theory – This theory considers the sun as the center of the solar system. The
earth and other planets revolve around the sun in a circular orbit.

Planets
- Mercury- Rocky, cratered surface; extremely thin atmosphere

- Venus-Thick cloud cover; green house effect

- Earth-liquid water, life

- Mars-polar ice caps, pink sky, dominant volcanoes

- Jupiter-Great red spots, thin ring; huge magnetosphere

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 - Saturn-many rings and ringlets, Titan only moon with substantial atmosphere

- Uranus-Rotates on side; worldwide ocean of superheated water

- Neptune- Unusual satellite rotation, 4 rings, great dark spot.

Asteroids - are objects that orbit the sun like planets. Sometimes called minor planet.

Meteoroids – are objects smaller than the asteroids that revolve around the sun.

Comet - is a mass of frozen materials such as water, methane and ammonia

Solar eclipse – when the sun, the moon and the earth are in straight line. During solar eclipse, the
sun can’t be seen from earth because the moon covers it.

Lunar eclipse – same as solar but in this case the sun covers the moon.

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 EXCERCISES FOR GENERAL SCIENCE

I. Match each definition in column B with the correct word in column C. Write the letter of the
correct word and the first letter of the correct word in the space provided in column A.

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A B C
1. A systematic process a. Law
of gaining information b. Theory
2. A variable that is c. Scientific method
changed by the d. Independent variable
experimenter e. Dependent variable
3. It responds to the f. Weathering
variable that is g. Igneous rock
changed in the h. Research
experiment i. Troposphere
4. A process that results j. Minerals
to the breaking of k. monsoon
rocks into smaller l. Model
pieces m. Metamorphism
5. Process by which n. Tide
infrared radiation from o. Greenhouse effect
the earth’s surface is p. Hypothesis
absorbed by water q. Experimental group
vapor and carbon r. Inference
dioxide in the s. Control group
atmosphere t. Conclusion
6. It is a description of a u. Erosion
repeatable natural v. Sedimentation
occurrence w. Metamorphic rocks
7. A reasonable x. rocks
explanation of natural
occurrences
8. A sample group that
receives a treatment
9. Helps visualize
occurrences and
objects that cannot be
observed directly
10. An educated guess.
11. A change in
constitution of a rock
brought about by
pressure and heat
within the earth’s crust
12. Solid earth materials
that have a definite
chemical composition
and molecular
structure
13. A logical conclusion
that can be drawn from
an observation
14. This is done to gather
important information
before designing an
experiment.
15. A periodic rise and fall
of ocean water caused
by the moon and the
sun.
16. The layer of the
atmosphere where we
live
17. Seasonal wind that
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II.Computation
1. An adult inhales 10 000 L of air a day. What is the equivalent volume in cubic millimeters?
2. One stick of cigarette of a particular brand contains 40 mg tar. If a person smokes 20
cigarette sticks in a day, how many grams of tar does he consume in a week?
3. The nearest star to the sun is 2.52 x 1013 miles away. How far is this in kilometer?

III.Essay

1. What is the difference between revolution and rotation?

2. Unlike earth, which is surrounded by sea of gas, Mercury has no atmosphere. State a
possible explanation for the lack of atmosphere in this planet.

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Biology – the branch of science that deals with the study of living systems and life processes.

A. Cells

This is probably the most basic term that you would need to know.

All living systems are composed of cells.

They are the basic unit of structure and fuction in living things.

Cell

Organelles are structures with specific functions found within living cells.

❖ Nucleus – This organelle is arguably the most important structure in the cell because it
serves as the control center

❖ Cell wall/cell membrane – the cell wall in plant cells and in some monerans and protests
provides rigidity for support to the cells
❖ Mitochondrion – this organelle is also called as “powerhouse of the cell”. It serves as the
site where ATPs are abundantly synthesized.
❖ Chloroplast – this serves as the site of photosynthesis among plants serves as the site of
protein synthesis.
❖ Endoplasmic Reticulum – These organelles serve as channels or passageways through
which materials are transported to the different parts of the cell.
❖ Centriole – this serves for cytokinetic purposes and is very common among dividing cells
❖ Lysosome – the structure is also called “suicidal bag” as it releases digestive juices
❖ Golgi apparatus – this serves for selection and packaging of cellular materials.

Differences between plant and animal cells

Structure Plants Animals
1. cell wall Present Absent
2. chloroplast Present Absent
3. centriole Absent Present
4. lysosome Absent Present
5. vacuole One/large Many/small

The Cell Theory

- serves as the basis on which everything that we know about the cell is anchored.
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There are three elements to this theory;

1. All living things are made up of cells.

2. Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in living systems.
3. All cells come from preexisting cells.

Like any biological structure, the cell is composed of biomolecules that are intricately combined to
enable the cell to perform its metabolic functions.

a. Carbohydrates – immediate source of energy

- elemental composition: C, H, O
- building blocks: monosaccahrides
Examples: sucrose (table sugar), maltose, amylase

b. Fats/Lipids – these molecules serve as another source of energy after carbohydrates

- elemental composition: C, H, O
BOUILDING BLOCKS: fatty acids and a glycerol backbone
- EXAMPLE :waxes, oils, and cholesterol

c. Proteins – these molecules serve as sources of building materials.

- elemental composition: C, H, O, N, S
- building blocks: amino acids
- e.g. amylase, actin and myosin
d. Nucleic Acids – these molecules include the RNA’s and the DNA’s
- elemental composition: C, H, O, N, P
- building blocks: nucleotides

Cells according to complexity

● Prokaryotic cells – have no membrane-bound nucleus and organelles

EX: typical of bacteria and blue-green algae

● Eukaryotic cells – have membrane-bound nucleus and organelles

EX: Typical of protests, fungi, plants, and animals.

Cell Transport

Passive Transport – does not require the expenditure of energy

- Use to moves particles through the concentration gradient.

Active transport – requires the expenditure of energy

- Use moves particles against the concentration gradient.

Diffusion - this refers to the process in which molecules of solvent move from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration.

Osmosis – this refers to the diffusion of particles or molecules across selectively permeable
membrane.

Cell Reproduction

This refers to the process by which cells divide to produce daughter cells. It involves either mitosis
if somatic or body cells are involves or meiosis if germ or sex cells are involved.

Mitosis - refers to the division of the somatic cells

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- also referred to as equational dvision

Meiosis - refers to the division of germ cells

- also referred to as reductional division

B. Botany

Plants are autotrophic organisms capable of synthesizing their own food for growth and
maintenance through the process of photosynthesis.

-Their cells are eukaryotic

Major plant cell types:

Three major plant cell types, parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma, make up
the different tissues of the plant.

o Parenchyma cells are usually large, thin-walled and are extremely variable in shape.

o Collenchyma cells have primary cell walls that are thickened irregularly by cellulose and
pectin materials.

o Sclerenchyma cells have a comparatively thick primary cell wall bearing heavy
depositions

Tissues are aggregate of cells with similar structure and function.

Meristematic tissues
-are composed of immature cells and regions of active cell division. They provide for
growth and are found in the root tip.

o Permanent tissues
Epidermis
–composed of tiny openings principally on the underside of the leaves

Periderm
– constitute the corky outer bark of trees.

Vascular tissues
– composed of xylem and phloem;

XYLEM
- functions for the transport of water and minerals upward from the roots while phloem
functions for the transport of food materials.

Different Plant Parts

Root
It is typically underground organ of the plant axis that functions principally for anchorage
and absorption of water and minerals from the soil.
Stem
-The stem is readily recognized by the presence of nodes.

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Leaf
It is a flattened, green, lateral appendage that carries out the functions of photosynthesis
and transpiration.
-Chlorophyll gives the leaf its green color.

Flower
It is a modified branch representing the reproductive structure of an angiosperm.

Fruit
The fruit is the ripened ovary with functions to protect and disperse the seeds.

Photosynthesis and Transpiration

Photosynthesis and transpiration are physiological processes occurring in leaves.

Photosynthesis involves the trapping of the radiant energy and its conversion into chemical energy.

- It takes place in the chloroplast of the leaves.

Transpiration is the loss of water in vapor form through the stomates, minute openings distributed
on the surface of leaves.

General Equation:

Photosynthesis: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6H12O12 + 6 O2

Respiration

C6H12O12 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O

- it is a complex process by which energy in the form of ATP is released from food molecules
ingested by organisms.

Plant Taxonomy

It is the science of classification, nomenclature and identification of plats. It is the most

basic and a unifying field of botany.

C. Genetics

Genetics is the study of heredity and variation.

Heredity is the transmission of traits from generation to generatio.

Variation deals with genetic differences between organisms. The process mainly involved in
heredity and variation is cell division

The cells in all organisms grow and reproduce by cell division. A unicellular bacterium, after

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doubling in size, can reproduce by dividing into two cells. In multicellular organisms like man,
increase in size is attained by dividing its constituent cells.

Gene Segregation and Interaction

Dominant Allele - alternative trait that is expressed in the phenotype.

Recessive Allele – alternative trait whose expression is marked in the phenotype.

Law of Dominance – state that only dominant alleles are expressed in the phenotype and that
recessive alleles are masked among hybrids but are manifested among pure breeds.

Law of Co-dominance – states that two equally dominant alleles are equally expressed in the
phenotype and that no blending is achieved.

Law of Incomplete Dominance – states that among multi-allelic traits, two dominant alleles that
are not dominant enough to mask the expression of one anothe

Mendel’s law may be separated into two rules:

*Law of Independent Segregation states that the alleles in a gene pair separate cleanly from
each other during meiosis.

*Law of Independent Assortment states that the alleles of the different genes separate cleanly
from each other and randomly combining during meiosis.

These laws can be illustrated using monohybrid and dihybrid cross:

a. Monohybrid Cross

One of the pairs of alternative characters in sweet peas studied by Mendel waqs round vs
wrinkled seed. These distinctive characters or traits are called phenotype while the gene or
genetic content coding for these traits is the genotype. In example below, both parents are
homozygous so that the round (P1) and wrinkled (P2) parents have the RR and rr genotypes,
respectively. The gametes produced after meiosis by P1 is R and by P2 is r so the progeny of the
first filial generation (F1) have heterozygous (Rr) genotypes. Since R is dominant over r, then the
F1’s have round phenotype. This is an example of complete dominance. R masks the expression
of r. This is the dominant allele. The allele that is masked ( r ) is the recessive.

Female Parent (P1) Male Parent (P2)

Phenotype: Round Wrinkled

Genotype RR rr
Gametes R r

Fertilization

F1 genotype: Rr
Phenotype; Round

To demonstrate that the F1’s are heterozygous, a testcross can be conducted wherein the
F1 plants are crossed to the homozygous recessive parents (rr). The recessive parent contributes
the gametes ( r ) while the other parent contributes R and r. Testcross results in 1 Rr (round): 1 rr

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(wrinkled) or 1:1 segregation ratio.

Rr x rr

Gametes r
R Rr (round)
r rr (wrinkled)

Genotypic Ratio: 1Rr : 1rr

Phenotypic Ratio: 1round : 1 wrinkled

b. Dihybrid Cross

The members of gene pairs located on different homologous chromosome segregate

independently of each other during meiosis.

Mendel studied two phenotypes, texture and color of seeds with two alternative traits;
round and yellow seeds vs. wrinkled and green seeds. He crossed pure breeding round, yellow
seeded plants with pure breeding wrinkled, green seeded plants. The F1 progenies were all yellow
round seeded plants. The F2’s gave 315 round, yellow: 101 wrinkled yellow; 108 round, green and
32 wrinkled, green plants. Approximately 9:3:3:1.

The method used in getting the genotypic ratio among F2 progeny is called Punnett
Square or Checkerboard method.

Molecular Basis of Heredity

The first part dealt with the physical basis of heredity – the chromosomes. Chromosomes
are the carriers of the multitude of genes. Genes or hereditary units, on the other hand, are actually
fragments or portions of the deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA.

A chromosome is made up of one very long DNA packaged with histones to fit inside a
minute nucleus of the cell. Eukaryotic cells with several chromosomes would, therefore, contain
more than one molecule of DNA. Prokaryotic cells and viruses generally possess one long
molecule of DNA either naked or associated with proteins but not as organized as compared to
eukaryotic chromosomes. The DNA has been tagged as the genetic material of all organisms with
the exception of some viruses with ribonucleic acid or RNA as their genetic material.

Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

DNA as the genetic material is capable of transmitting biological information from a parent
cell to its daughter cells and, in a broader perspective, from one generation to another. The
information stored in its base sequence is copied accurately by replication. Replication is a
process of faithfully copying a DNA to produce two DNA molecules identical to the parent DNA.
These DNA molecules are then passed on to the daughter cells via the chromosomes during cell
division.

The information stored in the DNA when expressed will result to a particular trait of an
individual. The trait is expressed through the action of proteins either directly or indirectly.

The central dogma of molecular biology consists of three general processes namely:
replication (DNA synthesis), transcription (RNA synthesis) and translation (protein synthesis).
The transfer of information from cell to cell or from generation to generation is achieved by
replication. On the other hand, the transfers of information from the DNA to the proteins involve two
processes: transcription and translation. Generally, all organisms follow this mode of transfer
except for some viruses that undergo reverse transcription.
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 DNA RNA PROTEIN

Mutation – changes in the genetic materials that are essentially heritable.

a. Deletion – refers to a segment of base pairs in the DNA that is spliced off.
b. Substitution – refers to a segment of the base pairs in the DNA that is replaced by a different
series of base pairs.
C. Translocation – refers to segments of base pairs that are differently positioned.
d. insertion – refers to base pairs that are added to segment of DNA.

Evolution – this process refers to the gradual change in populations through time.

D. Animal Development (30 minutes)

Animal Cells, Tissues and Tissue Organization

Animal tissues are generally classified into four categories: Epithelium, Connective Tissue,
Muscle and Nerve. These animal tissues make up all the organ systems of the body.

o Epithelium, in its simplest form, is composed of a single continuous layer of cells of the
same type covering an external or internal surface.

o Connective Tissue, has the widest range encompassing the vascular tissue(blood and
lymph), CT proper, cartilage and bone.

o Muscular tissue consists of elongated cells organized in long units of structures called
muscle fibers or muscle cells. The two general categories of muscle, smooth and striated.
Striated or skeletal muscle functions for voluntary control while smooth muscle functions
for involuntary contractions.
o The nerve cells or neurons comprising the nervous tissue each possess a cell body which
contains the nucleus and the surrounding cytoplasm. The process come in contact with
other nerve cells, or with other effector cells through a point of contact called synapse.

Animal Development

Animal development is a series of events that is controlled by the genetic information in the
nucleus and factors in the cytoplasm. It starts with fertilization and ends into the arrangement of
cells which gives the embryo its distinct form. Features which are unique to organism such as the
shape of the face, location and number of limbs and arrangement of brain parts are molded by cell
movements in response to the action of genes in the nucleus and molecules in the cytoplasm.

Stages of Development

a. Gametogenesis

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 Each species has its own chromosome number. Somatic cells of humans have 23 pars of
chromosomes (22 pair somatic and one pair sex; one chromosome of each pair is originally derived
from the father and the other from the mother. The chromosomal pair comes in contact with each
other and exchange segments during meiosis. This phenomenon provides combinations of
parental traits hence there is more viability in the characters of the offspring.

Gametogenesis changes the diploid cells into haploid sperms and ova. Cells undergo
meiosis, a sequence of two divisions during which the chromosomes divide only once. The
resulting cells have only half the number of the chromosomes of the parent cells. This process
prevents doubling of the chromosomes during fertilization.

The male germ cells, initially round and large, are changed into slender and flagellated
cells. The cytoplasm is practically lost and mature cells develop a head, neck and tail. The female
germ cells gradually increase in size as a result of growth.

b. Fertilization

The ovum and the sperm unite thus restoring the diploid chromosome number of the
species. In humans, each gamete has 23 chromosomes (haploid). Upon fertilization the zygote
acquires 46 chromosomes. At this stage of development, the genetic sex of the individual is
established.

c. Cleavage

The unicellular zygote undergoes cleavage characterized by active mitoses. It is not a

period of growth but a time in which the zygote is divided into a large number of small cells, the
blastomeres. Each blastomere nucleus has the same DNA since these are derived from the same
cell, the zygote. Cleavage ends with the formation of the multicellular organism.

d. Blastula

The mass of blastomeres forms a hollow fluid-filled cavity, the blastocoel. In frogs, cells
below the blastocoel are large; these are the macromeres.

In humans, at this embryonic stage, the 32-cell cell blastocyst burrows into the uterus. The
blastocyst has two distinct cell types; an inner cell mass and an outer shell, the trophoblast. The
former will become the embryo, the latter will give rise to the extra-embryonic membranes termed
amnion and chorion.

e. Gastrula

Gastrulation, a stage of extensive cell movements, rearranges the embryonic cells. Cells
are translocated to the different areas thus acquiring new neighbors and new positions. The
neighbor cells may act as inducers in the formation of structures. The different cell movements
establish the third germ layer, the mesoderm.

At the end of gastrulation, the embryo has three primary germ layers: an outer ectoderm,
an inner endoderm and middle mesoderm. At this stage tissues have become committed to form
one type of organ- a brain or stomach.

The ectoderm gives rise to the epidermis of the skin, sense organs and the nervous
system. The endoderm gives rise to the organs of the respiratory and digestive systems. The
mesoderm gives rise to the organs of the circulatory, skeletal, muscular, excretory and reproductive
systems, connective tissues and linings of body cavities.

f. Neurula

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 Toward the end of gastrulation, the ectoderm along the dorsal surface elongates to form a
layer of columnar cells, the neural plate. This region thickens and moves upwards forming the
neural fold which then fuse to form a hollow tube, the neural tube. Closing of the neural tube starts
at the head region and continues posteriorly. This piece of tissue gives rise to skin pigments,
nerves and the adrenal medulla.

g. Organ formation

The ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm formed in the gastrulation are the source
materials for the development of organs. At this stage the component cells are still undifferentiated
and do not show any adult feature. These masses are further subdivided into groups of cells until
the organ acquires its unique characteristics and specific location.

h. Brain Formation

The earliest form of the brain is the nueral tube. At this stage, the brain shows three
regions- prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencephalon (midbrain) and the rhombencephalon (hind
brain). Later, the prosencephalon divides into telencephalon and diencephalons. The
mesencephalon remains undivided.
In frogs, the brain is a straight tube and remains in that condition in adult. In humans, the
embryonic brain undergoes bending and twisting. Hence in adult, the hindbrain is adjacent to the
forebrain and the eyes become anterior to the nose.

i. Limb Formation

Limbs start as buds at the embryonic sides, which later develop as paddle-like extremities.
Later, circular constrictions appear dividing the limb into three main segments. Fingers and toes
develop when cells at the most distal end die. The upper limb rotates 90º sideward so that the
thumbs move sideward. The lower limb rotates 90º towards the center, placing the big toe at the
center.

E. Ecosystem and Ecology

The branch of biology that pertains specifically to the relationship of an organism with that
of its environment is known as ecology. Ecology is a body of knowledge that covers the economy of
nature. It involves the study of overall relationship of an organism to its inorganic/organic
environment, that is, the physical world; and its relation and interaction with other organisms, both
plants and animals alike.

The basic functional unit and the most important concept in ecology is the ecosystem, as it
includes both plants and animals and the physical environment, each of which influencing the
other. Ecosystem or ecological system may refer to biotic assemblage of plants, animals, microbes
interacting among them and with that of the physico-chemical environment.

Components of the Ecosystem and Trophic Levels

The ecosystem has two basic components – the biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living)
components. The biotic component is further subdivided into two units, namely, the autotrophs (self
nourishing/self feeding) and the heterotrophs (other feeding).

The autotrophs are usually chlorophyll-bearing organisms, that are able to harness solar
energy. In the presence of water and carbon dioxide, they convert this energy into (chemically-
stored energy) known as adenosine triphosphate or ATP. They assume the role as producers in an
ecosystem. Plants are the typical producers. However, in aquatic systems, algal communities or
phytoplanktons may be the producers.

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 Heterotrophs, on the other hand, are those that depend on the producers as food. They
are generally classified as consumers, although those that secure food directly from the producers
are better known as herbivores or primary consumers. A secondary consumer or carnivore, on the
other hand, derives its nourishment indirectly from the producers by devouring the herbivore. In
some ecosystems, tertiary consumers exist. Other heterotrophs include also the decomposers
where organic matter is reduced to simpler substances. Structurally therefore, the ecosystem can
composite the following, that is, the abiotic factors; the producers; the macroconsumer; and the
decomposers.

The abiotic component, on the other hand covers climatic, edaphic (soil) and topographic
factors.

Climate includes light, temperature, precipitation and wind. Light influences the biotic
components in many ways, as in photosynthesis, flowering seed dormancy, leaf senescence,
nesting, migration and hibernation. Light quality penetrating with increasing water depths also
determines the type of producers (i.e. green algae in shallow water and red algae at greater
depths). Temperature affects living organisms by influencing their metabolic processes. It can
determine the type of vegetation in different ecosystems depending on its availability.
Water as the universal solvent plays an important role in the ecosystem as it serves as a
medium for biochemical processes. It can determine the type of vegetation in terrestrial
ecosystems depending on its availability. In aquatic ecosystems, however, what plays important
roles are salinity, ph, temperature and dissolved oxygen.

The atmosphere is a major reservoir of nutrients important to life. Nutrient cycling in the
atmosphere is further facilitated by wind. The latter also accelerates evapo-transcription rate
causing damage to plant structures. However, it plays an important role in facilitating seed
dispersal and in the distribution of plants and animals.

Biome - is a geographical unit uniformly affected by a common prevailing climate havin a similar
flora and fauna.

Terrestrial biomes the world over include:

❖ Tropical rainforests – which have the highest species diversity
❖ Coniferous forests – which harbors the pine-trees
❖ Deserts – characterized by very low species diversity
❖ Grasslands – also variously called savannahs, steppes and scrubs
❖ Taigas and
❖ Tundras-characterized by permafrosts

Aquatic biomes on the other hand include:

❖ Marshlands
❖ Lakes
❖ Seas and oceans and
❖ Estuaries

Five Kingdoms

❖ Monera – prokaryotic; unicellular; includes the bacteria and the cyanobacteria.

❖ Protista – eukaryotic; unicellular/colonial; includes the flagellates, the ciliates, the
sarcodines and the algal systems.
❖ Fungi – eukaryotic; unicellular (yeasts) and multicellular (molds and mushrooms).
❖ Plantae – eukaryotic; multicellular;
❖ Animalia – eukaryotic; multicellular; includes the invertebrates and vertebrates.

Ecological Relationships

a. Mutualism – “give and take” relationship

b. Commensalisms- a relationship where the commensal is benefited and the host is neither

18
 benefited nor harmed
c. Parasitism – a relationship where the parasite is benefited and the host is harmed
d. Competition – neither organism in this relationship is benefited
e. Predation – a relation where the predator is benefited and the prey is harmed

Food Chain

Three components of a Food Chains

a. Producers – occupies the 1st trophic level; composed of plants and photosynthetic algae
b. Consumer
- herbivore – occupies the 2nd trophic level; 1º consumer
- carnivore – occupies the 3rd trophic level; 2º consumer
- omnivore – occupies either the 2nd or 3rd trophic levels.
c. Decomposer – the last component of a food chain

Energy Transfer - energy is transferred from one trophic level to another following the 10 % rule.

Food Web - it is a feeding relationship that is illustrative of a series of interlinking food chains.

Ecological Laws

Two ecological laws can demonstrate this relationship between organisms and their
environment. These include Liebig’s Law of Minimum and Shellford’s Law of Tolerance.

● Liebig’s Law of Minimum states that “growth and survival of an organism is

dependent primarily on the nutrients that are least available. “A plant will grow and
develop well where a particular nutrient critical for growth and survival is found to
be inadequate or not available at all in that particular area. Take note that
magnesium is an important component for the production of chlorophyll, being the
central atom of pigment.
● Shellford’s Law of Tolerance states that “the existence of the organism is within the
definable range of conditions.” This means that “ organisms then can live within a
range between too much and too little”. Thus an organism han an optimum range
of conditions (peak) curve and an intolerance zone, where number of organisms is
at its lowest or zero.

Chemistry- is a science that studies matter, its properties, structure and the changes it undergoes
together with the energy involved.

Branches of Chemistry
⮚ Analytical Chemistry
⮚ Physical Chemistry
⮚ Inorganic Chemistry
⮚ Organic Chemistry
⮚ Biochemistry

Scientific method- a systematic approach/procedure in investigating nature; a combination of

observations, experimentation and formulation of laws, hypotheses and theories; an organized
approach to research

19
STEPS IN A SCIENTIFIC METHOD

1. Observation or Data Gathering

Observations-things perceived by the senses; can be quantitative or qualitative
■ Qualitative – consist of general observations about the system
■ Quantitative – consist of numbers obtained by various measurements of
the system
Examples:
⮚ Ice floats in water
⮚ Vinegar is sour
⮚ Body temperature is 39.0oC
⮚ An object weighs 1.5 kg
Observation vs. Inference
Inference – interpretation of the observation
e.g. The clouds are dark. (observation)
It might rain. (inference)

2. Are the observations answerable by any natural law?

Law (natural law) - a pattern or consistency in observation of natural phenomena; a verbal or

mathematical statement which relates a series of observation
e.g. Law of Conservation of Mass
Law of Thermodynamics

3. Defining a problem

4. Formulate a possible solution (Hypothesis Making)

Hypothesis- an educated guess to explain an observation; a tentative explanation of a natural law

based on observation

5. Experimentation
- Is the hypothesis really the answer to the problem?

20
6. Interpret results.

7. Generate a generalization.

Theory- a hypothesis that survived testing through experimentation; a model or a way of looking at
nature that can be used to explain and make further predictions about natural phenomena

Laboratory Rules and Techniques

⮚ Do not return extra chemicals to the main supply unless so directed. To avoid waste, take
from the supply only the amount of material needed.
⮚ Perform experiments with the apparatus at arm’s length from the body never directly under
the face.
⮚ If you must smell a substance, hold the container at a distance and, with a cupped hand,
waft the fumes toward your nose.
⮚ Never use cracked or broken equipment. It can complete its breaking.
⮚ Never pour water into concentrated acid. Always add the acid to the water with stirring.
⮚ Read the lower meniscus of a colorless liquid at eye level. Use the upper meniscus when
the liquid is colored.
⮚ Never weigh hot substances.

Measurements in Chemistry

Rules on the Use of Significant Figures

NON- ZERO DIGITS All non-zero digits are significant

ZEROS IN MEASUREMENTS
There may be some confusion about the zero in a measurement. Rules will be used to
determine whether zeros are significant or not.

1. Trailing Zeros
Final zeros after a decimal point are always significant.
e.g. 25.330 g has 5 significant figures

2. Captive Zeros
Zeros that are found between any two non-zero digits are significant.
e.g 706.3 mm has 4 significant figures

3. Leading Zeros
a. Zeros before a decimal point are not significant.
e.g 0.786 g has 3 significant figures.
b. When there are no digits before a decimal point or when the digit before a decimal point
is zero, the zeros after the decimal point preceding other digits are not significant.
e.g. 0.000543 cm3 has 3 significant figures

4. Final Zeros in a whole number may or may not be significant.

To resolve this, use of exponential is recommended.

EXACT NUMBERS Any number that is exact such as the number 3 in the statement “there are
three feet in one yard” is said to have unlimited number of significant figures.

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

The sum or difference should have the same number of digits to the right of the decimal
point as the factor with the least number of digits to the right of the decimal point.

21
 e.g. 35.986
+ 675.8
567.3839
1279.1699 1279.2 (five significant figures)

MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION

The result obtained by multiplication and/or division must have the same number of
significant figures as the factor with the least number of significant figures.

e.g (34.6)(3450.0)/345 =346.00 346 (three significant figures)

RULES FOR ROUNDING OFF NUMBERS

When the answer to a calculation contains too many significant figures, it must be rounded
off to the proper number of significant figures. The rules for rounding off is summarized as follows:
1. If the digit to be removed is less than 5, drop this digit and leave the remaining numbers
unchanged. Thus, 1.23 becomes 1.2 when rounded off to two significant figures.

2. If the digit to be removed is equal to or greater than 5, drop this digit and increase the preceding
digit by one. Thus, 3.46 becomes 3.5 when rounded off to two significant figures.

ACCURACY AND PRECISION

Accuracy refers to the nearness of a value to the true or actual value.
measured by percentage error

Error – the difference between a measured value and the true (or most probable) value.

% error = /Average value – True value/ x 100%

True value

Higher % error, less accurate

Precision indication of the agreement among different measurements of the same event.
measured by deviation

Deviation – absolute value of the difference of the measured value from the average value

Deviation = /Measured value – Average value/

Higher deviation, less precise

MATTER
Matter- anything that has mass, takes up space (volume) and possesses inertia

Pure Substance- homogeneous matter that cannot be separated into its components by physical
means; with fixed composition and distinct properties

22
Types of Pure Substances:
a. Elements- pure substance composed only of 1 type of atom; cannot be decomposed by ordinary
means into simpler substances (Ex. H, He, Au, W)

b. Compounds- two or more elements chemically combined in a definite and constant proportion
(Ex. KCl, CH3COOH, MgCl2)

Ionic Compounds
■ Structural units are the cations and anions
■ In the solid state, the ions do not move from their positions in the lattice but only vibrate in
place

Properties of Ionic Compounds

Melting Point: High
Electrical Conductivity: Solid Non-conducting
Molten Conducting
Aqueous Conducting
Hardness: Very Hard
Malleability: Brittle

Covalent Molecular Substances

■ Uncharged or neutral structural units (molecules) in the crystal lattice.
■ The atoms in each molecule are held together by strong COVALENT BONDS.

Properties of Covalent Molecular Compounds

Melting Point: Low
Electrical Conductivity: Solid Non-conducting
Molten Non-conducting
Aqueous Non-conducting
Hardness: Soft
Malleability: Brittle

Covalent Network Substances

■ The structural units that occupy the lattice points in the solid are ATOMS.
■ The atoms are bound to each other by strong COVALENT BONDS.

Properties of Covalent Network Substances

Melting Point: Very high
Electrical Conductivity: Solid Non-conducting (except graphite)
Molten Non-conducting
Aqueous Insoluble
Hardness: Very Hard
Malleability: Brittle

Mixture- combination of different substances in variable proportions; can be separated into its
components by physical methods of separation

Types of Mixtures:
a. Homogeneous- uniform composition and properties throughout a given sample, but composition
and properties may vary from one sample to another (e. g. solutions)

b. Heterogeneous- with non-uniform properties throughout a sample where components retain their
identity and phase boundaries exist (e.g. colloids, suspensions)

Other Classification of Matter

a. Physical States of Matter (Phases of Matter)
■ SOLID – rigid, has definite volume and shape
■ LIQUID – fluid ( has ability to flow), takes the shape of the portion of the container they

23
 occupy
■ GAS – fluid, expands to fill up its container
b. Special forms based on arrangement of particles and the degree of cohesiveness
Crystalline solids; amorphous solids; liquid crystals
■ Crystalline solids – high degree of cohesiveness and very orderly arrangement of particles
■ Amorphous/non-crystalline solids – disordered arrangement of particles but with a high
degree of cohesiveness
■ Liquid crystals – medium degree of cohesiveness and very orderly arrangement of
particles; allows a degree of ordered motion of particles

PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Extensive Properties properties that depend on the amount of material observed

e.g. mass, volume, texture
Intensive Properties properties that does not depend on the amount of material observed
e.g. density, odor, taste
Extrinsic Properties properties that can vary with different samples of the same material
e.g mass, volume, size
Intrinsic Properties properties which are inherent to the substance and do not change for
different samples of the same substance
e.g. density, boiling and melting points, odor, taste
Physical properties characteristics observed or measured without changing the identity or
composition of the material
Chemical Properties characteristics observed or measured only by changing the identity or
composition of the material; ability or inability of matter to undergo a change in its identity or
composition at given conditions

Changes in Matter

Physical Change changes in the phase or state of a substance but not its composition
e.g. changes in state (liquid gas), shape or size (granules powder)

24
Phase Change – determined by existing conditions of temperature and pressure
Sublimation Solid to Gas Deposition Gas to Solid
Melting Solid to Liquid Freezing Liquid to Solid
Evaporation Liquid to Gas Condensation Gas to Liquid

Chemical Change substances are converted into other substances

e.g. rusting of iron, burning of wood

Types of Chemical Reactions

1. SYNTHESIS / COMBINATION – formation of a bigger compound from simpler ones
A+B+C… D

2. DECOMPOSITION - A single compound is broken down to 2 or more simpler substances

- Solids require heat (Δ)
A B+C+D+…

3. Single Displacement- Cation or anion is replaced by an uncombined element

AB + C AC + B

4. Double Displacement – Metathesis Exchange of partners

AB + CD AD + CB
Other types:
❖ Combustion - Reaction with O2 to form CO2, H2O, N2 and oxides of any other elements
present
❖ Precipitation - Formation of a precipitate when a solution is added to another
Precipitate – an insoluble or slightly soluble solid that forms when 2 solutions are mixed.
Solubility Rules
1. All nitrates are soluble.
2. All acetates are soluble.
3. All NH4+ salts are soluble.
4. All salts of Group 1 are soluble.
5. All chlorides are soluble except chlorides of Hg22+, Pb2+ and Ag+.
6. All bromides are soluble except bromides of Hg22+, Pb2+ and Ag+.
7. All iodides are soluble except iodides of Hg2+, Hg22+, Pb2+ and Ag+
8. Most sulfates are soluble except Group 2, Pb2+ and Hg2+.
9. All phosphates are insoluble except NH4+ and Group 1.
10. All chromates are insoluble except NH4+ and Group 1.

❖ Neutralization - Reaction between an acid and a base forming water and salt

LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION

1. Law of Conservation of Mass
■ Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794) - “Father of Chemistry”
● Established chemistry as a quantitative science
● Studied combustion

“In a chemical reaction, the total mass of the starting materials (reactants) is equal to the total mass
of the materials produced (products).”

2. Law of Definite Proportion or Composition

■ Joseph Proust (1754-1826)
● Showed that copper carbonate always has the ff. proportion by mass:
● 5.3 parts Cu : 4 parts O : 1 part C

“Any sample of a pure chemical substance contains the same elements in the same definite
proportion by mass of its elements.”

25
3. Law of Multiple Proportion
■ John Dalton (1766-1844)

“In different compounds of the same elements, the different masses of one element that combine
with a fixed mass of the other element are in the ratio of small whole numbers.”

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ATOM

● Greeks (400 BC)
o Matter was composed of 4 fundamental substances: FIRE, EARTH, WATER, AIR
● Leucippus and Democritus (5th BC)
o First to propose that matter is made up of tiny indivisible particles called “atomos”
meaning indivisible
● Lucretius and the Greeks (1 BC)
o What appears as a solid object may actually consist of small particles
o There must be some limit to the number of subdivisions which can be formed on
any bit of matter
o Matter can be resolved ultimately into a unit which is indivisible and indestructible

“ATOM” means cannot be cut/destroyed

- The Greeks were only concerned on the existence of the atom but not on its nature

DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

● John Dalton (1766-1844)
■ In 1808, published the book “A New System of Chemical Philosophy” wherein he
presented the atomic theory in detail.

Dalton’s Billiard Ball Model

● The atom is a tiny, hard, indestructible sphere.

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

1. Matter consists of tiny particles called atoms which are indestructible.
2. All atoms in a given element are identical and have the same mass.
3. Atoms of different elements have different properties.
4. Reactions involve only the rearrangement of atoms; separation or union. When atoms
combine to form compounds, the ratio of the no. of combining atoms is fixed.

Thompson’s Raisin Bread/ Plum Pudding Model

● Joseph John Thomson (1904)
■ Studied cathode ray tubes

⮚ The cathode rays are repelled by the negative pole of a magnetic field
⮚ This suggests that the ray consists of a stream of negatively charged particles
⮚ All atoms must contain electrons.

⮚ An atom is a diffuse, spherical cloud of positive electrification

26
 with randomly embedded negatively charged electrons.

⮚ Thomson measured the charge to mass ratio of the electron:

e/m = -1.76 x 108 c/g

⮚ He also showed that whatever metal is used as a cathode and whatever gas is present
inside the tube, the cathode ray consist of the same particles as shown by the same e/m
ratio.

Importance of Thomson’s Experiment

⮚ It correctly suggested that the atom consists of an arrangement of + and – charges.
⮚ It postulated the presence of the electron in all matter
● Robert Millikan (1909)
■ Using oil drop experiments, he determined the charge of an electron:
● -1.6 x 10-19 c
■ Thus the mass of an electron is (using e/m ratio):
● 9.11 x 10-28 g

Rutherford’s Nuclear Atom Model (Alpha Scattering Experiment)

● Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937) and Hans Geiger (1882-1945)
⮚ Majority were undeflected
⮚ Some were slightly deflected

⮚ Few bounced off

Explanations:
⮚ Most of the mass and all the (+) charges on an
atom are centered in a very small region called
the nucleus.
⮚ The atom is mostly empty space.
⮚ The magnitude of (+) charge is different for
different atoms.
⮚ Electrons move
around the (+) nucleus.

Eugene Goldstein (1850-1930)

⮚ Goldstein, in 1886 identified the positively charged particle and named it proton

⮚ He used cathode with holes and observed rays passing through the holes opposite in
direction to those of the cathode rays.

⮚ The mass of this particle almost the same as the mass

of the H atom

⮚ The charge is equal in magnitude (but opposite in sign to

27
 that of the electron)

Bohr’s Solar System Model of the Atom

● Neils Bohr (1885-1962)
■ In 1913, tried to explain the line spectra of hydrogen
Features:
● The electrons move about the nucleus in certain circular orbits.
● Only certain orbits and energies are allowed.
● The electron can remain in an orbit indefinitely.
● In the presence of radiant energy, the electron may absorb E
and move to an orbit with higher E
Quantum or Wave-Mechanical Model
● Louis de Broglie (1892-1987), Erwin Schrodinger (1887-1961),
Werner Heisenberg (1879-1976)

Features:
● The energy of the electron is quantized.
● The electron moves in 3-D space around the nucleus but not in an orbit of definite radius.
● The position of the electron cannot be defined exactly, only the probability.

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

• There is a fundamental limitation to just how precisely we can know both the position and
the momentum of a particle at a given time.

The Nature of Light

- Radiant energy that exhibits wavelike behavior and travels through
space at the speed of light in a vacuum. It has oscillating magnetic
and electric fields in planes perpendicular to each other.

Primary Characteristics of Wave

1. WAVELENGTH, λ
- distance between two consecutive peaks or troughs in a wave
2. FREQUENCY, ν
- number of waves or cycles per second that pass a given point in space

Relationship of λ and ν
λ α 1/ν or λν = c
Where c= speed of light (2.9979 x 108 m/s)

Atomic Spectra
- The spectra produced by certain gaseous substances consist of only a limited number of
colored lines with dark spaces between them.
- This discontinuous spectra.
- Each element has its own distinctive line spectrum- a kind of atomic fingerprint.

Robert Bunsen (1811-1899) and Gustav Kirchhoff (1824-1887)

• Developed the first spectroscope and used it to identify elements.

Max Planck (1858-1947)

• Explained certain aspects of blackbody radiation
• Blackbody – any object that is a perfect emitter and a perfect absorber of radiation
• Sun and earth’s surface behave approximately as blackbodies
• Proposed that energy, like matter, is discontinuous.
• When the energy increases from one allowed value to the next, it increases by a tiny jump
or quantum.
• Matter could absorb or emit energy only in the whole number multiples of the quantity.
E=hv where E is energy
h is Planck’s constant = 6.626 x 10-34 Js

28
 v is frequency

So, ΔE = n hv Where n is an integer (1,2,3…)

● Energy is “quantized” and can only occur in discrete units of size hv (packets of energy
called Quantum)
● Transfer of energy can only occur in whole quanta, thus, energy seems to have particulate
properties.

Albert Einsetein (1879-1955)

• Proposed that electromagnetic radiation is itself quantized
• Electromagnetic radiation can be viewed as a stream of particles called PHOTONS

Summary of the Works of Einstein and Plancks

• Energy is quantized. It can occur only in discrete units called quanta.
• Electromagnetic radiation, which was previously thought to exhibit only wave properties,
also exhibit particulate properties, thus the dual nature of light.

If light has particulate properties, not just wave, does matter also have wave properties, not just
particulate?

Louis de Broglie (1892-1987)

• Small particles of matter may at times display wavelike properties.
• For a particle with velocity, v
m=h/λv
Then λ = h / mv
Thus, we can calculate the wavelength for a particle.

• All matter exhibits both particulate and wave properties.

• Large pieces of matter predominantly exhibit particulate properties because their λ is so
small that it is not observable.
• Very small pieces of matter such as photons exhibit predominantly wave properties.
• Those with intermediate mass, such as electrons, show clearly both particulate and wave
properties.

MODERN VIEW OF THE ATOM

ALLOTROPE – elements with different forms (composed of one type of element)

ISOTOPES – elements with different mass number due to the difference in the number of neutrons
ISOBARS – different elements with the same mass number but different atomic number

Atom and the subatomic particles

■ The diameter of an atom is in the order of 10-8 cm
■ The nucleus is roughly 10-13 cm in diameter (1/100,000 diameter of the atom)
■ The charge of the nucleus is a unique character of the atoms of an element
■ The charge is positive

Particles within the nucleus

PROTON
■ Eugene Goldstein (1886)
■ from Greek “protos” meaning “first”
■ mass of p+ = 1.67 x 10-24 g
■ charge = +1.60 x 10-19 c
■ The no. of p+ is a unique property of an element
# of p+ = atomic #, Z
= nuclear charge
= # of e -s in a neutral atom
29
NEUTRON
■ James Chadwick (1932)
■ Protons cannot account for the total mass of the atom
■ Has the same mass as the proton but has no charge
■ Symbol: n0
■ mass of p+ + mass of n0 = mass of atom (atomic mass)
# of p+ + # of n0 = mass #, A
A = Z + # of n0

ELECTRON
■ Ernest Rutherford
■ negatively charged
■ in a neutral atom :
▪ # of e - = # of p+ = Z

Summary:
Particle Discovery Mass in grams Charge
Electron discovered by JJ 9.11 x 10-28 -1
Thomson; name given
by George Stoney
Proton discovered by 1.67 x 10-24 +1
Rutherford in 1911,
name given by
Goldstein
Neutron discovered and named 1.67 x 10-24 0
by James Chadwick,
1932

Symbol of the Atom

Atomic number, Z, is the number of protons in the
nucleus
Ex. The element N has 7 protons, so Z= 7.

Mass number, A, is the sum of the number of protons

and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
Ex. An atom with 5 protons and 5 neutrons has an
atomic number of 5 and a mass number of 10

ISOTOPES
■ Francis William Astron (1877-1945)
– observed using the mass spectrometer that neon has 3 isotopes
■ The listed atomic mass of an element is the weighted average of the atomic masses of the
naturally occurring isotopes.
Atomic mass = Σ (% abundance)(isotopic mass)

For Ions
■ (+) charge – cation
- Lost electrons equal to the charge
■ (-) charge – anion
- Gained electrons equal to the charge

NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
- proposed by Marie Curie (1867-1934)

Spontaneous disintegration of an unstable atomic nucleus with accompanying emission of radiation

in order to form a more stable species.
30
Nuclear Equation
• The sum of the mass #’s (A) must be the same on both sides
• The sum of atomic #’s (Z) must be the same on both sides
Nuclide
• A nucleus with a specified mass # (A), # of p+ (Z) and # of n0
• Stable nuclide
• Radioactive nuclide

Stability of Nuclide
• ODD-EVEN RULE
• Even # of n0 and p+ : more likely to be stable
• Odd # of n0 and p+ : more likely to be unstable
• MAGIC NUMBER
• Isotopes with specific # of p+ or n0 are more stable than the rest:
• 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82 and 126
• All nuclides with 84 or more protons are radioactive.
• e. g. Po, At ….

TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY

1. ALPHA DECAY OR EMISSION
• α- particle:
• Heavy, travel short distances
• Usually emitted by a heavy nuclei

2. BETA DECAY OR EMISSION OR NEGATRON EMISSION

• β particle (negatron)
• Usually when neutrons are in excess,
they are transformed into protons with
emission of beta particles.

3. POSITRON EMISSION
• Usually when p+ are in excess, these
are transformed into n0 with emission
of positron

4. ELECTRON CAPTURE OR K- CAPTURE

• Usually happens when p+ are in
excess (as in positron emission)
• Nuclear stability achieved by capturing
one of the inner e -s (lowest E level or
K- shell) converting a p+ to a n0
• X-rays emitted
5. GAMMA EMISSION (γ – radiation is emitted)
• high energy photons or radiation similar
to x-rays but shorter λ , high ν, high
penetration
• no mass, A and Z of nucleus remain
unchanged

NUCLEAR FISSION
• Heavy nucleus splits into 2 or more lighter nuclei
• Occurs when a heavy nucleus is struck with projectiles or bullets (nuclear particles)

NUCLEAR FUSION
31
 • Nuclei of lighter elements are made to combine to form heavier nuclei
• Occurs at very high temp.
• More E released but difficult to harness

HALF-LIFE, t1/2
• Time required for half of radioactive nuclei in a sample to undergo radioactive decay
• Constant for every radioactive isotope

t1/2 = ln 2/ k k is the rate

ln (N/N0) = -kt N0 = initial amount or activity

N = amount left or activity left after time t

THE ELUSIVE ELECTRON

Quantum Number – describes the orbital and the electron

ORBITAL is an energy state for an electron described by the three quantum numbers n, l and ml
- may hold two electrons with opposite spins

1. Principal Quantum Number (n)

■ Take positive, nonzero integral values: 1,2,3…
■ Main energy level or principal shell
■ As n increases:
orbital becomes larger, e- becomes farther from the nucleus
higher E- e- is less tightly bound to the nucleus

2. Azimuthal or Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l)

■ Values: 0 to n-1 for each value of n
■ Sublevel or subshell
■ Related to the shape of the orbital

Orbital Symbol
- combination of n and l
- consists of a number (for n) and a letter (for l)
e.g. 3s n = 3 ; l is s = 0

3. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)

■ Values: l to –l including zero
■ Related to the orientation in space of the angular momentum
associated with the orbital
Degenerate orbitals – orbitals having the same energies
e.g. the three p-orbitals have the same energy

4. Electron Spin Quantum Number (ms)

■ Values: +1/2, -1/2
■ The value does not depend on any of the three
quantum numbers

32
Pauli Exclusion Principle (Wolfgang Pauli 1900 -1958)
- In a given atom, no 2 e-’s can have the same set of 4 q.nos.
Thus, an orbital can hold only 2 e-’s, and they must have opposite spins.

Electronic Configuration – describes the manner in which

electrons are arranged in an atom
Ground state electronic configuration- lowest
energy arrangement of electrons
Excited state- allowed arrangements of electrons
other than the ground state
Isoelectronic- same number of electrons

Rules to remember when writing ground state electronic

configurations
¤ Aufbau Principle- the orbitals of an atom are filled in order of increasing energy
- According to the (n+l) rule. The lower the value of (n+l), the lower the energy of
the orbital. If the (n+l) values of two orbitals are the same, the one with lower n is
filled first.

¤ Hund’s Rule of Multiplicity- the lowest energy arrangement of electrons in a set of

degenerate orbitals is where there is a maximum number of electrons of the same spin.
Electrons occupy degenerate orbitals singly before pairing.

THE PERIODIC TABLE

The Elements
● there are 112 elements to date, 90 of which
are naturally occurring

Early Classifications
1. Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner’s Law of Triads
(1817)
- In a triad , the combining weight of the central
member is the average of its partners.

2. John Newlands’ Law of Octaves (1865)

- When elements are arranged in increasing atomic mass, every eighth element had similar
properties.
Shortcomings:
■ Some positions were forced just to maintain his proposition
■ Some positions contained 2 elements
■ There were no room for other elements which may be discovered
3. Julius Lothar Meyer’s Atomic Volume Curve and Periodic Table (1869)
■ A periodic trend in properties is observed when elements are arranged in increasing atomic
weights.
4. Dmitri Mendeleev’s Periodic Table and Periodic Law (1869)
■ Properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic weights
■ Predicted the discovery of 10 elements

The Modern Periodic Law

- The properties of the elements are functions of their atomic numbers

Groups

33
 ■ Vertical rows
■ Previous notation: IA – VIIIA, IB – VIII

■ New IUPAC* notation: 1-18

*IUPAC – International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
■ Elements belonging to the same group have similar (not identical) properties
Special names of some groups
■ Group 1 – Alkali metals
■ Group 2 – Alkaline earth metals
■ Group 17 – Halogens
■ Group 18 – Noble Gases
Periods
■ Horizontal rows
■ Properties of elements that belong to a period show a pattern or trend that is repeated in
the next period
■ Numbered 1-7
Pattern in Ion Formation
■ Most elements form ions (except noble gases)
■ Group 1 : +1 Group 15 : -3
■ Group 2 : +2 Group 16 : -2
■ Group 13 : +3 Group 17 : -1
■ Group 14 : do not readily form ions

Of the known elements, 11are gases at room temperature. four are liquids at 25°C, Hg, Br, Ga and
Cs. If Fr can be prepared in large quantities, it is expected to be a liquid.

Property Across a period (left to right) Down a group (top to

bottom)
atomic size/radius Decreasing Increasing
ionization energy Increasing Decreasing
affinity for electrons Increasing (upto Group 17) Decreasing
Tendency to form Cation Decreasing Increasing
Tendency to form Anion Increasing (upto Group 17) Decreasing
Metallic Character Decreasing Increasing
Electronegativity Increasing Decreasing

Note: The size of the cation is smaller as compared to its neutral atom
The size of the anion is larger as compared to its neutral atom.

Atomic Size
► Covalent radius – ½ the distance between the nuclei of two identical atoms joined by a
single covalent bond.
► Metallic radius – ½ the distance between the nuclei of 2 atoms in contact in the crystalline
solid metal.

Ionization Energy
► Energy required to remove an e- from a gaseous atom or ion
X(g) → X+(g) + e-
Where the atom or ion is assumed to be in its ground state

Affinity for electrons

► Tendency of an atom or ion to attract additional e-
X(g) + e- → X- (g)

Electronegativity
► The attraction of an atom for shared electrons.
Note:
Metals react with oxygen gas forming a basic oxide in water.
34
Nonmetals react with oxygen gas forming an acidic oxide in water.

CHEMICAL LANGUAGE AND SHORTHAND

Chemical symbols
An element is represented by a symbol which may be one or two letters; the first is
capitalized and the second is in the lower case. The symbols may be derived from the Greek,
German or Latin names of the elements.

Binary Covalent Compounds

Binary covalent compounds are formed between two non-metals

A. Naming binary covalent compounds

1. Identify the elements present in the compound given by the chemical formula. The name of the
more metallic element is written first.
2. Change the suffix of the less metallic element to –ide.
3. Use the prefix corresponding to the number of atoms present in the compound.

Number Greek Prefix Number Greek Prefix

1 Mono- 6 Hexa-
2 Di- 7 Hepta-
3 Tri- 8 Octa-
4 Tetra- 9 Nona-
5 Penta 10 Deca-

The mono- prefix is frequently omitted, particularly for well-known substances. If no prefix is use, it
usually implies that no number of atoms of element is one. However, experts in nomenclature
caution that this can be dangerous and suggest that it is better to include the mono- prefix.

Some compounds are known only by their common names. The most common of this are:
Forrmula
H2O
NH3
PH3

Name
Water
Ammonia
Phosphate

. Writing formulas of binary compounds

1. Represent each kind of element in a compound with the correct symbol of element.
2. Indicate by a subscript the number of atoms of each element in a molecule of the compound.
3. Write the symbol of the more metallic element first. (H is an exception to this rule.)

IONIC COMPOUNDS
Compounds formed between metals and nonmetals are called ionic compounds.

A. Naming Ionic Compound

1. Write the name of the cation first, followed by the name of the anion.
2. Unlike binary covalent compounds, PREFIXES ARE NOT USE to indicate the number of
ions present in the formula.

Note that for ionic compounds, the prefixes are not attached to the chemical name to denote
the number of atoms of the elements. The number of atoms is implied by the charges of the
cation and the anion. It is therefore important to know the charges of the common cations and
anions.

35
 3. Most transition metals can exist in more than one ionic form. Thus, it is important to know the
charge of the cations in their compounds.
Examples: Formula Stock system Old system
SnCl4 tin (IV) chloride stannic chloride
SnBr2 tin (II) bromide stannous bromide

The method of indicating the charge of the cation involves placing a Roman numeral equivalent
to the magnitude of the charge of the cation in parenthesis after the English name is called the
Stock System of Nomenclature.

Some ionic compounds form crystals that contain a certain proportion of water molecules apart
from the ions of the compound. Such compounds are called HYDRATES. Hydrates are named
just like other ionic compounds except for the addition of the “hydrate” with a Greek prefix
indicating the number of water molecules per unit of the ionic compound.
Example: CuSO4∙5H2O copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate or cupric sulfate pentahydrate

B. Writing Formulas of Ionic Compounds

1. Write the symbol of the positive ion (cation) first, followed by the symbol of the negative ion
(anion).

2. Write the charge of each ion over the symbol of that ion. Usually, for the main group
elements, the group number usually gives the charge of the monoatomic ion. Remember that
Group 1 elements would have a charge of (+1); Group 2 (+2); Group 3 (+3); Group 16 (-2);
Group 17 (-1); and Group 18 (0) unless indicated.

3. Choose a subscript that will make the net charge zero. The simplest procedure is to use the
absolute value of the charge of the anion as the subscript for the cation; and the absolute value
of the cation charge as the subscript for the anion (CROSS-OVER RULE). When both
subscripts in the formula can be divided by same number to simplify the formula, you should do
so, unless you know the actual molecule represented.

4. For hydrates, follow the same steps, then add a centered dot, followed by the number of
water molecules (indicated by the prefix) and the chemical formula of water.

ACIDS
A. Naming Binary Acids
Binary acids contain only two different elements- hydrogen and a nonmetal. Binary acids
are named as hydro ____ic acid, where the stem of the nonmetal is inserted in place of the line.
Thus,
HF- hydrofluoric acid and HBr- hydrobromic acid

The names hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen bromide are also used for HF and HBr,
respectively. Both names are correct although the convention is that these compounds are named
as acids when they are present in aqueous solutions. Thus, HF in aqueous solution is hydrofluoric
acid, but pure HF is referred to as hydrogen fluoride.

B. Naming Oxyacids
Another type of acid is the oxyacids derived from the oxyanions. Since some elements
form more than one oxyanion, they also form more than one oxyacid. The name of the oxyacid is
derived from the name of the oxyanion with a change in the suffix using the following rules:

1. If the name of the oxyanion ends in –ate, the name of the oxyacid will be of the form ____ic
acid.
Example SO42- sulfate H2SO4 sulfuric acid
ClO4- perchlorate HClO4 perchloric acid

2. If the name of the oxyanion ends in –ite, the name of the oxyacid will be of the form ___ous
acid.

36
 Example SO32- sulfite H2SO3 sulfurous acid
ClO- hypochlorite HClO hypochlorous acid

Names and Symbols of Some Common Polyatomic Anions

Formula Name Formula Name
OH- Hydroxide NO3- Nitrate
2-
O2 Peroxide NO2- Nitrite
-
CN Cyanide CH3COO- Acetate
-
N3 Azide CrO42- Chromate
2-
SO4 Sulfate Cr2O72- Dichromate
2-
SO3 Sulfite MnO4- Permanganate
-
HSO4 Hydrogen sulfate or C2O42- Oxalate
bisulfate
HSO3- Hydrogen sulfite or SCN- Thiocyanate
bisulfite
PO43- Phosphate CO32- Carbonate
2-
HPO4 Hydrogen phosphate HCO3- Hydrogen carbonate
H2PO4 -
Dihydrogen phosphate or bicarbonate
Some common oxyanions
Chlorine Bromine
ClO4- Perchlorate BrO4- Perbromate
-
ClO3 Chlorate BrO3- Bromate
-
ClO2 Chlorite BrO2- Bromite
-
ClO Hypochlorite BrO- Hypobromite

STOICHIOMETRY
Chemical Reactions
• Processes in which substances are changed into one or more new substances
• Represented by chemical equations:
Reactants Products

2H2 + 1 O2 2H2O
2 molecules + 1 molecule 2 molecules
2 moles + 1 mole 2 moles
4.04 g + 32.00 g 36.04 g

36.04 g reactants 36.04 g products

■ FOLLOWS THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS
Balancing Chemical Equations
37
Some important points:
• Use correct chemical formulas
• Adjust only the coefficients, NOT the subscripts
• Balance elemental forms ( e.g. Ar, Cu, Na, O2, N2, I2, S8…) and H and O last.
• Use the simplest possible set of whole no. coefficients

Stoichiometry- The quantitative study of reactants and products in a chemical reaction

Mole Method - The stoichiometric coefficients in a chemical equation can be interpreted as the
number of moles of each substance.
Steps:
• Write correct chemical formulas and balance the equation.
• Convert the quantities into moles.
• Use the mole ratios to calculate moles of the required substance.
• Convert calculated moles to whatever units required.

Three types of calculation:

he Mole
In 1971, at the 14th meeting of the General Conference of Weights and Measures, scientists agreed
to adopt the mole as the unit of an amount of substance

The mole (abbreviated mol) is the amount of substance that contains the same number of
elementary particles as the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of C-12.

Ways of expressing the mole:

1. by number of particles (use Avogrado’s number, 6.02 x 1023 particles per mole)
2. by mass (use molar mass)
3. by volume (use molar volume, 22.4 L at STP)

Interconversions

Mass Mole No. of particles

The molar mass is the mass in grams of 1 mole of a substance. The molar mass is numerically
equal to the atomic mass (or atomic weight) of an atom or the formula mass of a molecule, a
compound or a polyatomic ion.

38
Formula and Composition
The percentage composition of a compound is a list of the percentages by weight of the elements
in the compound. The percentage by weight of an element in a compound is numerically equal to
the number of grams of the element that are present in 100 g of the compound

Ex. What is the percentage composition of quick lime, CaO?

Ans. 71.5% Ca, 28.5% O

Empirical Formula- is the formula with lowest possible whole number subscripts to represent the
composition of the compound. It can be determined from the % composition data.

Ex. Barium carbonate, a white powder used in paints, enamels and ceramic, has the following
composition: Ba, 69.58%; C, 6.090% and O, 24.03%. Determine its empirical formula

Ans. BaCO3

Molecular Formula- gives the actual composition or the actual number of atoms of each element
present in one molecule or one formula unit of the compound

Ex. Molecular formula of glucose: C6H12O6

Empirical Formula of glucose: CH2O

Stoichiometry of Reactions
Chemical Stoichiometry- is the quantitative relationship of the amounts of reactants used and
amounts of products formed in a reaction. This mass relationship is expressed in the balanced
equation for the reaction.

Percent yield- portion of the theoretical yield of product that is actually obtained in the reaction

%yield= (actual amt of product obtained/ theoretical amt) x 100

Theoretical Yield - the amount of product that would result if all the LR reacted.
- Maximum obtainable yield
Actual Yield - The amount of product actually obtained from a reaction
- Always less than theoretical yield

Limiting reactant- reactant that is completely consumed in the reaction. It also determines the
amount of products that can be formed.

Excess reactant- reactant that is not completely used up in a chemical reaction

TIES THAT CHEMISTRY BIND

Chemical Bonds- net forces of attractions that hold atoms together

Properties:
■ Bond energy – amount of energy that must be supplied to separate the atoms that make a
bond
■ Bond length – distance between 2 nuclei of 2 covalently bonded atoms
■ Bond order – number of bonds between atoms

Types of Chemical Bonds

a. covalent bond- pair of electrons that is shared by two atoms of nonmetals; represented by
Lewis structure or electron dot formula

Types of Covalent Bonds:

Single bond - two atoms held by one e- pair
Double bond – two atoms held by 2 e- pairs

39
 Triple bond – two atoms held by 3 e- pairs

• Higher Bond order, shorter Bond length, higher Bond energy

Polar covalent bond – one atom is more electronegative than the other atom; unequal
sharing of electrons; the more electronegative atom is partially negative and the less
electronegative atom is partially positive.

Nonpolar covalent bond – equal sharing of electrons

Coordinate Covalent Bond – the electrons being shared comes from a single atom

b. ionic bond or electrovalent bond– It is the transefer of electrons from a metal to a nonmetal,
i.e., the metal loses an electron while the nonmetal gains an electron converting them intro charged
ions.
- attraction between cations and anions

c. metallic bond- the attraction between the cations in the lattice and the “sea of delocalized
electrons” moving within the lattice

Lewis Structure-one or a combination of Lewis symbols to represent a single atom (neutral or

charged), a molecule or a polyatomic ion.
- based on Octet Rule

Octet rule- the observed tendency of atoms of the main block elements to lose, gain or share
electrons in order to acquire an octet of electrons in their outermost main energy level It is more
appropriately called Noble Gas Rule

Electron Pairs could either be

■ Lone pairs – pairs of electrons localized on an atom
■ Bonding pairs – those found in the space between the atoms
Drawing Lewis Structures
1. Sum the valence electrons from all atoms (total # of e-’s)
Total electrons = sum of the valence electrons of all atoms – charge
2. Determine the central atom and draw the skeletal structure.
Cental atom is the most metallic atom or the least electronegative.
3. Use a pair of e-’s to form a bond between each pair of bound atoms.
4. Distribute remaining electrons to the terminal atoms to satisfy octet.
5. If there are still available electrons, put them on the central atom to satisfy octet.
6. If the central atom does not satisfy octet, move electron pair (lone pair) from the terminal atoms
towards the central atom to form multiple bonds.
STRICT FOLLOWERS of OCTET: C, N, O, F and H (2 electrons)
7. Check the Lewis structure. H and F are always terminal atoms and joined by a single bond.
HYPERVALENT ATOM – atom that could accommodate more than the octet due to low-lying d-
orbitals.

RESONANCE - The use of two or more Lewis Structures to represent a particular molecule or ion.
- Can be written for molecules/ions having a double or a triple bond and single bond(s).

Resonance Structures- one of two or more Lewis structures for a single molecule that cannot
be represented accurately by only one Lewis structure.
- The true structure is the average or the “hybrid” of the resonance structures.

FORMAL CHARGE- Used to evaluate non-equivalent Lewis structures (different from resonance
structures)
= no. of valence electron in the free state – no. of nonbonding electrons – no. of bonds

GEOMETRY OR SHAPE OF MOLECULES

40
- the three-dimensional arrangements of atoms in a molecule
- governed by VSEPR Theory

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory

- The structure around a given atom is determined principally by minimizing electron pair repulsions

Steps for using VSEPR Theory

1. Draw the Lewis structure for the molecule/ion.
2. Count the e- pairs around the central atom and arrange them in the way that minimizes
repulsions.
3. Determine the positions of the atoms from the ways the e- pairs are shared.
4. Name the molecule structure from the positions of the atoms.

Type of Molecule Geometry Polarity

AX2 Linear Nonpolar
AX3 Trigonal planar Nonpolar
AX2E Bent or V-shaped Polar
AX4 Tetrahedral Nonpolar
AX3E Trigonal pyramidal Polar
AX2E2 Bent or V-shaped Polar
AX5 Trigonal bipyramidal Nonpolar
AX4E See-saw –shaped Polar
AX3E2 T-shaped Polar
AX2E3 Linear Nonpolar
AX6 Octahedral Nonpolar
AX5E Square pyramidal Polar
AX4E2 Square planar Nonpolar
AX3E3 T-shaped Polar
AX2E4 Linear Nonpolar

* The polarity are always TRUE if the substituents are the same since the net dipole is zero. The
dipole moments cancel out.
X number of substituents E no. of lone pairs

Repulsion Order:
Lone Pair (LP) – LP repulsion > LP- bonding pair (BP) repulsion > BP- BP repulsion

*For the VSEPR model , molecules with multiple

bonds, multiple bonds count as one effective e-
pair
* When a molecule exhibits resonance, any one
of the resonance structures can be used to
predict the geometry

Bond Polarity – results from a net dipole moment

41
 Dipole moment – results from the difference of electronegativity

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION (IMFA)

▪ Interactions among molecules (not within the molecules)
▪ Weaker than ionic or covalent bonding
▪ Explains the physical states of the molecules
Types:
1. London Dispersion Forces (LDF)
2. Dipole-Dipole Forces (DDF)
3. Hydrogen Bonding

London Dispersion Forces (LDF)

▪ Relatively weak forces that exist among noble gas atoms and
non-polar molecules
▪ Atoms can develop a momentary non-symmetrical e-
distribution (instantaneous dipole)
▪ This atom can induce a similar dipole in the neighboring atom
Polarizability
▪ The ease with which a dipole can be induced in an atom or
molecule
▪ Increases with increasing no. of e-’s (increased MM). results
to higher boiling point
▪ Increasing polarizability, stronger LDF

Dipole-dipole Forces
▪ Exhibited by polar molecules
▪ Stronger than LDF
▪ Only about 1% as strong as covalent or ionic bonds
▪ Molecules with dipole moments can attract each other electrostatically so that the positive
and negative ends are close to each other

Hydrogen Bonding
▪ Special type of dipole-dipole forces
▪ Exhibited by molecules with H-F, H-O or H-N bonds
▪ Occurs when an H atom is “sandwiched” between
F,O or N:

Strongest IMFA due to:

▪ Small size of the H atom – molecules can approach
each other closely
▪ High electronegativity of F,O,N – H is pulled closely; highly polar bond

The structure of ice due to H-bonding is shown on

the left. There is hollow space making ice less
dense than water.

Nature of Liquids as Effects of IMFA

1. Surface Tension- Ability to resist an increase in surface
area
Stronger IMFA, higher surface tension

2.Viscosity – fluid’s resistance to flow

Stronger IMFA, higher viscosity

3. Vapor Pressure- Vapor exerted by a vapor at equilibrium with its liquid at a given temp.
Stronger IMFA, lower vapor pressure
42
4. Enthalpy of Vaporization, ∆Hvap- Energy that must be supplied to evaporate a liquid at 1 atm
Stronger IMFA, higher ∆Hvap
5. Boiling Point- temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals atmospheric pressure
Stronger IMFA, higher boiling point

6. Freezing Point/ Melting Point- temperature at which the rate of liquid converting to solid equals
the rate of solid converting to the liquid
Stronger IMFA, higher FP/MP

7. Heat of Fusion, ∆Hfus- amount of heat required to melt a specified amount of solid at its MP
Stronger IMFA, higher ∆Hfus

PHASE CHANGES AND PHASE DIAGRAMS

The Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT)
■ Applied to gases:
1. Gases consist of large number of particles (molecules or atoms).
2. The gas particles are far apart. The volume therefore is negligible.
3. The particles are in constant, random and rapid motion. They move in all directions
4. At higher temp. the particles move faster. As the temp. of the gas increases, the ave. KE of
the particles also increases.
5. The particles are so far apart that the repulsion or attraction between them is negligible.

KMT extended to liquids

1. Liquids consist of large number of particles.
2. These particles are close together.
3. The particles are in constant motion. Their motion is more limited compared to that in
gases because of their nearness to each other but their can slip around one another.
4. The dependence between temperature and KE is the same as that in gases.
5. The particles experience attractive forces between them since they are closer to each
other.

KMT extended to liquids

1. Solids like liquids and gases consist of large number of particles.
2. The particles are close together, as in liquids. The difference is that the molecules in a solid
have a very well-ordered arrangement.
3. The movement of particles consist mostly of vibration within a fixed point.
4. The dependence between temp. and KE is the same as that of gases and liquids.
5. The particles experience attractive forces between them. These forces are stronger
compared to that in liquids.

Factors Affecting Vaporization

1. Atmospheric pressure – the lower the pressure above the liquid, the faster the rate of
vaporization
2. Humidity – high humidity, slow rate of vaporization
3. Surface area – a large surface area provides more molecules the opportunity to escape
4. Motion of the atmosphere – vaporization occurs rapidly in moving air than in still air

Heating Curve

At constant temperature, phase

change occurs and at this
temperature, kinetic energy is
constant while potential energy is
increasing

At increasing temperature, kinetic

energy is increasing while potential

43
energy is constant.

PHASE DIAGRAM

■ Triple point – all 3

states are present

■ Critical point:
■ Critical temp. –
temp.above
which the vapor
cannot be
liquefied no
matter what
pressure is
applied
■ Critical
pressure –
pressure
required to produce liquefaction at the critical temp.

Supercritical Fluid (SCF)

■ Has the high density of a liquid but the low viscosity of a gas
■ Molecules in SCF, being in much closer proximity than in ordinary gases, can exert strong
attractive forces on the molecules of a liquid or solid solute
GASES
Properties:
● Expansion
● Indefinite shape
● Compressibility
● Ease of mixing
● Low density

Jan Baptista van Helmont- coined the term “chaos” or “gas”

Evangelista Toricelli- showed that the air in the atmosphere exerts pressure; designed the first
barometer

Properties of Gases (Measurable)

1. Pressure (P)- force per unit area
P= F/A SI unit: 1 Pa= 1 N/m2
Standard atmosphere : 1 atm=760 mmHg=760 torr=101325 Pa = 1.01325 bar

2. Volume (V)- space occupied by the gas (unit: L, mL)

1 dm3 = 1L; 1 cm3 = 1 mL

3. Temperature (T)- expressed in K, °C or °F

K= °C + 273.15

Absolute zero temp= 0 K= -273.15°C molecules stop moving

Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP): 0°C, 1 atm

44
Standard Ambient Temperature and Pressure (SATP): 25°C, I bar

4. no. of moles of gas (n)

Gas Laws

1. Boyle’s Law- Robert Boyle

- the volume occupied by a given mass of gas at const temp is inversely proportional to the
pressure
(V α 1/P)
● does not apply to liquids and solids
● applies only at moderate or low P and moderate or high T
P1V1 = P2V2

2. Charle’s Law- Jacques Charles (1746-1823)

- the volume occupied by a given mass of gas at const pressure is directly proportional to temp (V
α T)
● Charles is the first person to fill a balloon with hydrogen gas (Made the first solo balloon
flight)
V1 = V2
T1 T2

3. Avogadro’s Law- Amadeo Avogadro (1776-1856)

- for a gas at const T and P, V is directly related to the no. of moles of gas (V α n)
Molar volume- one mole of any gas at STP occupies a volume of 22.4 L
V1 = V2
n1 n2

4. Gay-Lussac’s law- the pressure occupied by a given mass of gas at const volume is directly
proportional to temp (P α T)
P1 = P2
T1 T2

5. Combined gas law

(PV)/T = k, hence (P1V1)/T1 = (P2V2)/T2

6. Ideal Gas Law

PV= nRT
Where P = Pressure (atm)
V = Volume (L)
n = no. of moles (mol)
R = Universal gas constant= 0.0821 L-atm/mol-K
T = Temperature (K)

Daltons’s Law of Partial Pressures

■ For a mixture of gases in a container, the total pressure exerted is the sum of the
pressures that each gas would exert if it were alone.
Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 + … + Pn
■ Where P1, P2 and P3 are partial pressures of the gas each gas would exert if it were alone
in the container.

Graham’s Law of Effusion - Thomas Graham (1805-1869)

“ The rates of effusion of 2 different gases are inversely proportional to the square roots of their
molar masses.”

Effusion -Escape of gas particles from their container through a tiny orifice or pinhole.

45
For 2 gases A and B:
Rate of effusion of A = √MMB
Rate of effusion of B √MMA

SOLUTIONS
-homogeneous solutions
Components:
• SOLUTE – substance being dissolved; present in smaller amount
• SOLVENT – the dissolving medium; present in larger amount

Solubility - The maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent at a
given temperature

Types of Solutions:
• DILUTE SOLUTION – relatively little solute present
• CONCENTRATED SOLUTION – relatively large amount of solute present

Types of Solutions based on amount of solute dissolved:

• UNSATURATED – contains less than the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved
• SATURATED – contains the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved
• SUPERSATURATED – contains greater than the maximum amount of solute that can be
dissolved

Concentration- The amount of solute present in a given quantity of solvent or solution

Ways of Expressing Solution Concentration

1. Molarity, M = moles of solute/ L of solution
2. Mass Percent or Weight Percent = (g solute/ g solution) x 100%

3. Mole Fraction, X = moles of a component/moles of solution

= moles solute/ (moles of solute + moles of solvent)
4. Molality, m = moles solute/ kg solvent

FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY

1. Structure effects
“Like dissolves like”
In general, substances that have similar IMFA have strong solute-solvent interactions and
tend to form solutions.”

2. Pressure
• Affects solutions containing gases
• Higher pressure, higher solubility of a gas in liquid

3. Temperature
For solid solute and liquid solvent:
• For an endothermic dissolution: higher temperature, higher solubility
• For an exothermic dissolution: higher temperature, lower solubility

For gas solute and liquid solvent:

• Increasing temperature, lower solubility

Stoichiometry in solutions:
● Relate mole of reactant to mole of another reactant
● Relate mole of reactant to mole of product
● Relate mole of product to mole of another product
makes use of balanced chemical equation

46
always convert to mole since the balanced equation is in terms of mole.

DILUTION – procedure for preparing a less concentrated solution from a more concentrated one.
M1V1 = M2V2 where M – molarity and V- volume

COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
- Solution properties that depend on the amount of solute present and not on the nature of the
solute

1. Vapor Pressure Lowering

- The presence of a non-volatile solute lowers the vapor pressure of a solvent

2. Boiling Point ELevation

- The presence of a non-volatile solute increases the boiling point of a solution
BPsolution – BPsolvent = Kb m where Kb is the boiling point elevation constant
m is the molality

3. Freezing Point Depression

- The presence of a non-volatile solute decreases the freezing point of a solution
FPsolvent – FPsolution = Kf m where Kf is the freezing point depression constant
m is the molality

4. Osmotic Pressure
- Pressure required to stop osmosis

Osmosis - selective passage of solvent molecules through a porous membrane from a

dilute solution to a more concentrated one

Semi-permeable membrane - - Allows the passage of solvent molecules but blocks the
passage of solute molecules
π = MRT Where π = osmotic pressure
M = molarity of solution
R = gas constant
T = Kelvin temp.

ACIDS AND BASES

Arrhenius Definition (Svante Arrhenius, 1859-1927)

■ Acid - substance that when dissolved in water, increases [H+]
■ Base - substance that when dissolved in water, increases [OH-]
Bronsted-Lowry Definition (J.N. Bronsted and T.M. Lowry, 1923)
■ Acid – a proton donor
■ Base - a proton acceptor
■ Conjugate base – product formed when an acid loses a proton
■ Conjugate acid- product formed when a base accepts a proton

Monoprotic acid – donates 1 mole H+ per mole of acid

Polyprotic acid – donates more than 1 mole H+ per mole of acid
Amphiprotic - Substance that can act either as a proton donor or proton acceptor

Kw = [H3O+] [OH-] = 1.0 x 10-14

pH = -log [H3O+]
pOH = -log [OH-]
pH + pOH = 14
Strong Acids
■ HCl HBr

47
 ■ HI HClO4
■ HNO3 H2SO4 (1st ionization only)

Strong Bases
■ Hydroxides of Groups 1 and 2

Weak Acids and Bases – ionizes to small extent

The larger the Ka (ionization constant of acid), the stronger the acid, greater [H3O+]
The larger the Kb (ionization constant of base), the stronger the base, greater [OH-]

Lewis Definition (Gilbert Newton Lewis, 1875-1946)

■ Base – a substance that can donate an e- pair
■ Acid – a substance that can accept an e- pair

Titration
- a neutralization reaction
- a solution is gradually added to another solution until the solute of the first solution has
completely reacted with the solute of the second solution

Indicator – an organic compound that changes color depending on the pH

e.g. phenolphthalein colorless – acidic
faint pink – neutral
pink – basic

Equivalence Point- the point at which the solute of the first solution has completely reacted with the
solute of the other solution

Endpoint – approximates the equivalence point. It is very close to the equivalence point.

Standardization – it is the process of determining the concentration of a solution using a standard

solution. The solution has a known concentration.

Titrant- the solution usually placed on the buret. This is usually the solution of known concentration.

Analyte- the solution of unknown concentration usually placed in the Erlenmeyer flask.

BUFFERS
- A solution that resists drastic changes in pH when small amounts of acids or bases are added.

Components:
⮚ A weak acid and its conjugate base (in salt form) OR
⮚ A weak base and its conjugate acid (in salt form)

pKa = - log Ka
pKb = - log Kb

Henderson-Hasselbach equation: pH = pKa + log [base]/[acid]

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
- The state in which the forward and backward reactions continue to occur but the concentrations of
all reactants and products remain constant with time.

Characteristics:
1. Dynamic Situation – the forward and backward reactions continue to exist
2. Balance - the rate of forward reaction is equal to the rate of backward reaction
3. Law of Mass Action – reactions in equilibrium can be expressed in a Definite
Mathematical Expression

For a general equation:

48
 aA + bB cC + dD

Keq = [C]c [D]d / [A]a[B]b where Keq is the equilibrium constant

[ ] molar concentration

In the expression, only aqueous and gaseous substances are included. Solids and liquids are not
included since their concentrations are relatively constant.

Keq = Kc Kc is the equilibrium constant when substances are expressed in molar

concentration
Kp = Kc (RT)Δng Kp is the equilibrium constant when substances are expressed in their
partial pressures
R is the universal gas constant and T is the temperature in Celsius
Δng is the difference between the number of moles of gaseous particles of
products and reactants

Keq > 1, at equilibrium, reaction system consist mostly of products

-shift to the right
- very large Keq: reaction goes to completion

Keq < 1, at equilibrium, reaction system consist mostly of reactants

-shift to the left
- reaction does not occur to a significant extent

Le Chateler’s Principle -Henry Louis Le Chatelier (1850-1936)

- If a change in conditions (a “stress”) is imposed on a system at equilibrium, the equilibrium
position will shift in a direction that tends to reduce that change in conditions.
Factors Affecting Equilibria

1. Change in concentration
- If a reactant or product is added to a system at equilibrium, the system will shift
away from the added component.
- If a reactant or product is removed, the system will shift toward the removed
component.

2. Change in pressure
affects only system involving gases

Three ways to change the pressure of gaseous systems at a given temperature:

a. Add or remove a gaseous reactant or product at constant volume- same effect as change in
concentration
b. Add an inert gas (not involved in the reaction) at constant volume – increase in total pressure
but has no effect on concentrations or partial pressures of the reactants or products
c. Change the volume of the container – when the volume of the container holding a gaseous
system is reduced, the system responds by reducing its own volume. This is done by
decreasing the total no. of gaseous molecules in a system

3. Change in temperature
1. Keq value changes with temperature
2. Energy is treated as a reactant (endothermic) or product (exothermic)
3. If energy (heat) is added, the equilibrium will shift to the direction which consumes the
added energy

4. Catalyst
- Speeds up both the forward and backward reactions
- Equilibrium is achieved more rapidly but the equilibrium amounts are unchanged

49
 - Therefore, has no effect on equilibria

CHEMICAL KINETICS
■ The area of chemistry concerned with the speeds or rates at which a chemical reaction
occurs

Collision Theory- Chemical reactions occur as a result of collisions between reacting molecules.
■ For a reaction to procede, reacting particles must collide effectively to enable outer shell
electrons to interact.

■ Collisions to be effective, must be with enough energy to overcome repulsive forces

between electrons surrounding the nuclei of atoms.

Activation Energy (Ea)

■ The threshold energy that must be overcome to produce a chemical reaction

Transition State or Activated Complex

■ A temporary species formed by the reactant molecules as a result of the collision before
they form the product.

FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION RATES

1. Concentration
– higher concentration, higher reaction rate; more molecules, more collisions

2. Temperature
- Higher temperature, more collisions with high energy, higher reaction rate

3. Catalyst
- A substance that increases the reaction rate without itself being consumed.
- hastens the reaction by providing a path with lower activation energy thus less energy is needed
for a reaction to proceed
4. Pressure
- affects gaseous systems
- higher pressure, more collisions; higher reaction rate

THERMOCHEMISTRY
• Study of heat changes in chemical reactions
• Thermal energy transferred between 2 bodies that are at different temperatures
• Units: 1 calorie = 4.184 J

System A specific part of the universe that is of interest

Surrounding The rest of the universe outside the system

Exothermic Process : Q= (-)

- Heat is transferred from the system to the surroundings

Endothermic Process: Q = (+)

- Heat is transferred from the surroundings to the system

LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
1. First Law of Thermodynamics - Energy can be converted from one form to another, but cannot
be created nor destroyed.

2. Second Law of Thermodynamics - In any spontaneous process, there is always an increase in

the entropy (disorder) of the universe
- The entropy of the universe is increasing

50
 • SPONTANEOUS PROCESS – occurs without outside intervention (given the right
conditions)

• NON-SPONTANEOUS PROCESS – can occur as long as they receive some sort of

outside assistance

• ΔG < 0 (negative) – SPONTANEOUS

• ΔG > 0 (positive) – NON- SPONTANEOUS
• ΔG = 0 (zero) – at equilibrium

ΔG = ΔH -TΔS

CALORIMETRY
- Measurement of heat changes
• CALORIMETER – a closed container used to measure heat changes

Specific Heat Capacity (Cp)

• The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of the substance by 1oC.
• An intensive property

Heat Capacity (S)

• The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a given quantity of a substance by
1oC
• An extensive property
• S = m Cp where m = mass
Amount of Heat, Q
Q = mCpΔT where m is mass and ΔT is final temperature – initial temperature

If Q is positive, the process is endothermic.

If Q is negative, the process is exothermic.
Note: Qsys = - Qsurr

OXIDATION – REDUCTION (REDOX) REACTION

- Electron transfer reactions

HALF- REACTION
■ Shows the electrons involved in a redox reaction

a. Oxidation half-reaction
■ Half-reaction that involves loss of electrons
■ REDUCING AGENT (Reductant) – donates e-’s
b. Reduction half-reaction
■ Half-reaction that involves gain of electrons
■ OXIDIZING AGENT (Oxidant) – accepts e-’s

Mnemonics:
LEORA –Loss of Electron, Oxidation, Reducing Agent
GEROA- Gain of Electron, Reduction, Oxidizing Agent
Disproportionation Reaction
- same substance on the reactant side is oxidized and reduced

Comproportionation Reaction
- same substance on the product side is oxidized and reduced

Oxidation State
- A concept that provides a way to keep track of electrons in redox reaction according to certain
rules.

51
RULES & CONVENTIONS FOR DETERMINATION OF OXIDATION STATES
Fundamental Rules:
1. The sum of the oxidation state for all atoms in the formula for an electrically neutral
compound is zero.
2. The oxidation state for any element in the free or uncombined state is zero.
3. The oxidation state for an ion is the same as its charge.
Special Convention
1. In all hydrogen compounds, the oxidation state for H is +1.
Exception: in hydrides where H is –1
2. In all oxygen compounds, the oxidation state for O is –2.
Exception: in peroxides where O is –1
3. In all halides, the oxidation state for the halogens is –1.
4. In all sulfides, the oxidation state for sulfur is –2.
5. In binary compounds, the element with the greatest attraction for electrons is assigned a
negative oxidation state equal to its charge in its ionic compound.

Electrochemistry
- Area of chemistry that deals with the
interconversion of electrical and chemical
energy

Electrochemical Cell/ Voltaic Cell/ Galvanic Cell

• The experimental apparatus for
generating electricity through the use of
a spontaneous redox reaction.
Parts:

Anode
• Electrode at which oxidation occurs
• Negative (-) terminal
• Electrons leave

Cathode
• Electrode at which reduction occurs
• Positive (+) terminal
• Electrons enters

What occurs?
• Electrons flow from anode to cathode in the external circuit.
• Oxidation occurs at the anode, anions flow toward the anode within the cell
• Reduction occurs at the cathode, cations flow toward the cathode within the cell

Anolyte – where anode is immersed

Cathoyte- where cathode is immersed

Salt Bridge – maintains the neutrality

External Wire- pathway for electron flow
Voltmeter
• Measures the cell potential
• Gives positive readings in volts

Cell Representation or Diagram

• Anode │ Reducing species (oxidized form) ║ oxidizing species (reduced form) │cathode
Where │- boundary between different phases (e.g. electrode and solution)
║- boundary between half-cell compartments (e.g. salt bridge)

52
Mnemonics: ABC anode- bridge- cathode

CELL POTENTIAL / CELL VOLTAGE / ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (emf or E)

• The difference in electrical potential between the anode and the cathode
• Higher cell potential, higher energy given off by e-’s, strong tendency to generate electric
current
• 1 volt = 1 joule / 1 coulomb
• 1V = 1J/C
• Energy (J) = charge(C) x cell potential (V)
E0 cell positive spontaneous process

For reactions in which reactants and products are in their standard states,
ΔGo = -nFEocell
ΔG o
Eocell Spontaneity
- + spontaneous
0 0 at equilibrium
+ - non-spontaneous

Note: Higher reduction potential higher tendency to undergo reduction

Higher oxidation potential higher tendency to undergo oxidation

Electrolytic Cell
• Electrical energy is used to cause a non-spontaneous chemical reaction to occur
• ELECTROLYTIC CELL is the apparatus used.

1. Two electrodes share the same compartment

2. Has a single electrolyte
3. The conditions are usually far from the standard : gas pressures are rarely close to 1 atm
and solutions are not 1 M.

Battery withdraws e-’s from the anode and pushes them to the cathode.

Anode where oxidation occurs; positive

Cathode where reduction occurs; negative

Electron flows from anode to cathode

Anions go to the anode and cations go to cathode

E0cell is negative non-spontaneous

CORROSION
conversion of metal to its metal oxide
Rusting – corrosion of iron

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
- study of carbon and its compounds; chemistry of the hydrocarbons (compounds containing
only carbon and hydrogen) and their derivatives.

Hydrocarbons:
1. Alkane – CnH2n + 2
- all single bonds
2. Alkene – CnH2n
- double bond between carbon and hydrogen is present
3. Alkyne – CnH2n - 2
- triple bond between carbon and hydrogen is present

Aromatic cyclic derivative

53
Aliphatic open-chain

Oxygen Containing
1. Alcohol (R-OH)
2. Ethers (R-O-R)
3. Carboxylic Acids (RCOOH)
4. Esters (RCOOR)
5. Aldehydes (RCOH)
6. Ketone (RCOR)
Others:
1. alkyl halides (RX) where X is either F, Cl, Br, I
2. amines (RNH2)
3. amides (RCONH2)

NOMENCLATURE OF ALKANES

Alkanes are named by the IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) system,
which uses a systematic set of rules. Many also have non-systematic common or trivial names that
are still in use.

Common Names
At a time when relatively few organic compounds were known, it was customary to name new
compounds at the whim of their discoverers. Urea was so named because it was isolated from
urine. Morphine, a painkiller, was named after Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams. Barbituric acid,
a tranquilizer, was named by its discoverer after his friend Barbara. These older names for organic
compounds are now called common or trivial names; many of these names are still widely used
in the chemical literature and in commerce.

In the common nomenclature, the total number of carbon atoms in an alkane, regardless of their
arrangement, determines the name. The first three alkanes are methane, ethane and propane.
For alkanes beyond propane, certain prefixes are used to differentiate the different structural
isomers.

▪ The prefix normal or n- is used to indicate that all carbons are joined in a continuous
chain.
▪ The prefix iso- is used to indicate that one end of an otherwise continuous chain
terminates in a (CH3)2CH- group
▪ The prefix neo- is used to indicate that one end of an otherwise continuous chain
terminates in (CH3)3C- group

THE IUPAC System

The system of nomenclature so devised is presently known as the IUPAC system.

Systematic names or organic compounds consist of three main parts:

Prefix – stem – suffix

The stem indicates the number of carbon atoms in the backbone or parent chain of the molecules.
The parent chain is the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms.
Backbone Stem Backbone Stem
C1 Met- C11 Undec-
C2 Eth- C12 Dodec-
C3 Prop C13 Tridec-
C4 But- C14 Tetradec-
C5 Pent- C15 Pentadec-
C6 Hex- C16 Hexadec-
C7 Hept- C17 Heptadec-
C8 Oct- C18 Octadec-
C9 Non- C19 Nonadec-
54
C10 Dec- C20 Eicos-
The suffix identifies the type or class of the compound. For alkane, the suffix is –ane.

Attached to the backbone are the side-chains or substituents. The substituents present are
indicated by the prefix. In alkanes, the side-chains are called alkyl groups, which are derived from
alkanes through the removal of one hydrogen atom. They are named by changing –ane ending of
the parent alkane to –yl.
Steps:
1. Locate the parent chain
a. Find the longest continuous chain present in the molecule and use the name of that
chain as the parent name.
b. If there are two different chains of equal length, choose the one with the larger number
of branch points as the parent chain.

2. Number the carbon atoms in the parent chain so that the substituents are given the lowest
position numbers.

3. Identify the substituents and the position of the carbon atoms to which they are attached.
a. If there are two substituents on the same carbon, assign them both the same number.
b. There must always be as many numbers in the name as there are substituents.

4. Write the name of the compound by first arranging all substituents in alphabetical order and
preceeding the name of each substituent by the position number and then adding the name of the
parent chain; use hyphens to separate the different prefixes and commas to separate numbers.
a. If the same alkyl group occurs more than once as a substituent, indicate by prefixes di-,
tri-, tetra-, etc. However, do not use these prefixes for alphabetizing purposes.

5. Prefixes such as cyclo, neo- and iso- are included in alphabetizing substituents, while
hyphenated prefixes such as tert-, sec-, n- are ignored.

e.g.

2,6-dimethyloctane

For alkenes
The same as alkanes with some modifications:
a. The parent chain must contain the double bond.
b. The parent chain is named by changing the –ane ending of the corresponding alkane to –ene
and indicating the position of the double bond by the lowest number possible.
c. The carbons bearing the substituents are also given the lowest numbers possible, but the double
bonds takes precedence.
For alkynes
The rules are the same as for naming of alkenes, except that the ending –yne replaces –ene

Biochemistry
Polymers Building Blocks
Protein amino acids
Carbohydrates monosaccharides
Nucleic Acids nucleotides
Lipids fatty acids + glycerol

Saccharides – Sugars
Monosaccharide one unit
Disaccharide two units of monosaccharide

55
Glycogen stored food in animals
Starch stored food in plants
Cellulose supporting framework of plants

Nucleotides
Components
1. Nitrogenous Base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, uracil)
2. Sugar moiety
3. phosphate group

DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid

RNA – ribonucleic acid

A. Vector and Scalar

Scalar quantity – a quantity which is expressed by magnitude only

Examples:
a) Mass d) Area
b) Time e) Distance
c) Temperature

Vector quantity – a quantity which is expressed by magnitude and direction

Examples:
a) Force d) Acceleration
b) Velocity e) Displacement
c) Weight

● An arrow is used to represent a vector

Parts of the arrow

a) arrowhead – indicates the direction of the vector
b) length of the arrow – represents the magnitude of the vector
c) Tail – represents the origin of the vector

● Resultant vector – sum/difference of two or more vectors which will give the same effect as
the original vectors.

Process of finding the resultant vector

a) addition – if vectors have the same direction

Example: Kelly walks 2 meters to the east. After 10 seconds, he continued walking 3
meters to the same direction. What is his displacement?

D = 2m + 3m = 5m to the east

Using an arrow,
2m 3m or 5m

b) Subtraction – if vectors are acting on opposite directions. The resultant vector takes the
direction of the larger vector.

Example: A ball was tossed upward from the building and reached the height of 5m above

56
 the building. It the moved downwards, traveling 10m until it hits the ground.

D = -10m + 5m = -5m

Using an arrow,

5m 10m or 15m

c) Pythagorean Theorem – if vectors are acting at a right angle with one another

Example: Marivic first walks 2km north before proceeding 1.5 km east.What is her
displacement?

D = 2.5 km

Using an arrow,

1.5km

2km
2.5km

d) Component Method – if several vectors are acting on different directions, x and y

component are mathematically added to find the resultant vector.

Example: An airplane flies in a northeasterly direction at 100kph at the same time that
there is a wind blowing at 20kph to the northwest. What is the resultant velocity of the
plane?

X-components:

Vxplane = +Vplane cos 45о

= 70.71kph
Vxwind = -Vwind cos45 о
= -14.14kph
Y-components:

Vyplane = +Vplane sin45 о

= 70.71kph
Vywind = +Vwind sin 45 о
= 14.14kph

Resultant Velocity

Vx = Vxplane + Vxwind
= 70.71 – 14.14
= 56.57 kph
Vy = Vyplane + Vywind

57
 = 70.71 + 14.14
= 84.85kph

B. Mechanics

Motion – change in position of an object relative to other objects that are considered at
rest.

● Linear Motion

Distance vs. Displacement

Distance – total path length traveled by a body.

Displacement – change in position of an object. It represents the straight line path between
the starting and end points.

Example:
a. Jen travels 5km to work and back. What is the distance she travels? What is
the displacement?

Distance = 5km + 5km

= 10km

Displacement = 5km – 5km

=0

*since there is no change in position, her displacement is zero

b. Rocky walks 20 km due north from his camp. Late in the afternoon, he walks
back 11km south along the same path.
i. What is his total displacement from the camp?
ii. What is the total distance he traveled?

i. Displacement = 20km + (-11km)

= 9km due north
ii. Distance = 20km + 11km
= 31 km

Speed vs. Velocity

Speed – measure of how fast an object travels

o Average speed – ration of total distance traveled to the time needed to cover that
distance.

Example: It takes a school bus 1 hour to travel 20km. What is its average speed?

58
 o Instantaneous speed – is the speed at particular instance in time

Instantaneous Speed

Example: What is the speed of a car that covered 150km in two hours?

Instantaneous Speed

o Velocity – rate of motion with direction

Example: Rocky drives a distance of 80km in 2 hours towards the north direction. What
is his velocity?

Given:
d = 80km
t = 2hrs
Find: v
Solution:

o Acceleration – rate of change of velocity

Example: A driver steadily increases his velocity from 30 to 60 in 2 hours.

What is his acceleration?

Graphs relating displacement, velocity and acceleration

59
60
 ● Ideal linear motion

a) Uniform Motion – motion with constant velocity

Δx = vt
Where
Δx = x – xo
v = velocity
t = time

Example: What is the displacement of a car moving at a constant velocity of 20m/s

after 2 seconds?

Given:
v = 20m/s
t = 2s
Find: Δx
Solution:
Δx = vt
Δx = 20m/s (2s)
Δx = 40m

b) Uniform Accelerated Motion – motion with constant acceleration

61
Where:
Vf = final velocity
Vo = initial velocity
a = acceleration
t = time
X = final position
Xo = initial position
ΔX = X – Xo,displacement

Example: A cyclist is moving with a velocity of 2m/s and accelerates to 4m/s after 2 seconds. What
is the acceleration of the cyclist?

Given:
Vf = 4m/s
Vo = 2m/s
t=2s
Find: a
Solution:

a = 1 m/s2

c) Freefall - a good example of uniform accelerated motion

- one dimensional motion where the moving object is only under the influence of gravity
- gravitational acceleration is equal to -9.8m/s2

Where:
Vf = final velocity
Vo = initial velocity
g = -9.8m/s2, gravitational acceleration
t = time
Y = final position
Yo = initial position
62
 ΔY = Y – Yo, displacement

Example: A ball is dropped from a building without an initial velocity. Find the velocity of the ball
after 5 seconds.

Given:
T=5s
Vo = 0
Find: Vf
Solution:
Vf = gt
= (-9.8m/s2) 5s
= -49m/s

Example: A mango falls from a tree. How far does it fall after 0.5 seconds?
Given:
t = 0.5 s
Vo = 0
Find: ΔY
Solution:

ΔY = -19.6 m

d) Projectile Motion – curved motion of an object that is projected into the air and acted upon by the
gravitational force of the earth
- a combination of uniform motion and freefall

Projectile – an object thrown into the air that is allowed to move freely and is influenced only by
gravity

63
Range – horizontal distance covered by a projectile

Time of flight – time in which the projectile is up in the air

Trajectory – curve traced by the path of the projectile

Maximum height, h – the vertical displacement traveled by the projectile in its trajectory

Conditions of Projectile Motion throughout the flight:

a) Neglect the effect of air resistance to the body

b) The horizontal and vertical motions are independent of each other. Separate the displacement
and velocity to its x and y components.

Along the horizontal:

i) the x component of the velocity is constant throughout the flight

ii) the horizontal displacement x, follows uniform motion
iii) Formula along the horizontal is the same as uniform motion

Along the vertical:

i) the y component of the velocity acts as freefall and thus, only affected by the
gravitational acceleration
ii) The velocity’s sign is positive (+) for upward motion while for downward motion, it is
negative (-).
iii) Upon hitting the ground, its velocity is always equal to zero.
iv) The time required for the projectile to reach its maximum height from its firing point is
equal to the time that the projectile will reach the same height of its firing point from the
maximum height.
v) Formula along the vertical is the same as freefall

When vertical displacement is at its maximum height:

i) the x component of the velocity is constant

ii) the y component of the velocity is equal to zero
iii) the acceleration is still equal to g,-9.8m/s2

64
Example: A stone is thrown with an initial horizontal velocity of 10m/s from the top of a tower 200m
high. Where is the stone after 2s? When will it hit the ground? What is its speed just before it hits
the ground?

Given:
Vx = 10m/s
dy = 200m
t = 2s
Find: dx after 2s, t, Vf
Solution:

i) Δx = vt
Δx = (10m/s)(2s)
Δx = 20m

ii)
Since there is no initial velocity along the vertical and the top of the building is the
reference point, Yo and Vyo is equal to zero.

t = 6.38 s

iii)

C. Newton’s Laws of Motion

- explains why objects move, and define the relationship between the external
forces acting on a body – as well as between two or more interacting bodies
and the motion that arises from the action of these forces.

1. First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia)

“Every material continues to be at rest if it is at rest or in uniform motion if it is in

motion, unless it is compelled to change that state by forces acted upon it.”

Inertia – is the tendency of an object to resist a change in its state of motion

Mass – is a measure of an object’s inertia
Weight – force acted upon an object due to gravity
Force – a push or a pull (e.g. gravitational force, friction, normal forces, electromagnetic
force, etc.)
- a vector quantity with SI unit of Newton (N = kg-m/s2)

2. Second Law of Motion (Law of acceleration)

65
 “The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on the
object, is in the direction of the net force, and is inversely proportional to the mass
of the object.”

F = ma

* Force and mass have opposite effect on acceleration. The more massive the object, the
less is the acceleration. This means that acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass. The
greater force will result to greater the acceleration. Force is directly proportional to the acceleration
of an object.

Example: Neglecting friction, what constant force will give a mass of 50kg an acceleration of
5m/s2?

Given:
m = 50kg
a = 5m/s2
Find: F
Solution:
F = ma
F = (50kg)( 5m/s2)
F = 250 kg-m/s2 or 250N

3) Third Law of Motion (Law of action-reaction)

“Whenever one object exerts a force on a second object, the second object, exerts
an equal and opposite force.”

Hence, if your hand exerts a force of 20N in a wall, the wall will also exert a force of 20N in
your hand.

D. Momentum and Impulse

Momentum
Momentum is a physical quantity obtained when the mass of an object is multiplied to
its velocity. It has the same direction as the velocity. This means that an object with large
mass and velocity has high momentum. Accordingly, an object at rest has a momentum
equal to zero.

p = mv

Where:
p = momentum
m = mass
v = velocity

Example: A truck full of sand with a mass of 40,000kg travels east with a velocity of 50m/s.
What is the truck’s momentum?

Given:
m = 40,000kg
v = 50m/s
Find: p
Solution:
p = mv
p = (40000kg) (50m/s)
p = 2,000,000 kg-m/s
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Impulse
Impulse is a vector quantity that has the same direction as the force. It is equal to the
product of force and time. It is also associated with the change of momentum.

Where:
J = impulse
F = Force
Δt = change in time
m = mass
v = velocity

Example: A bat hits the baseball. The bat and the baseball remain in contact for 0.005
seconds. The 0.1kg ball leaves the bat with a velocity of 100m/s. What is the average force
of the bat on the baseball?

Given:
t = 0.005s
m = 0.1kg
v = 100m/s
Find: F
Solution:

Law of Conservation of Momentum

“The total momentum of a system remains constant if the net external forces
acting on the system are equal to zero.”

As stated, the total linear momentum of the system does not change. This means that if
you add all the momenta, you will get the same result even if the objects are colliding with each
other.

Collision – any string interaction between two bodies that lasts a relatively short time
Two types of Collision
i) Elastic collision – after the collision, the objects is still separatd from each
other

67
 ii) Inelastic collision – after the collision, the objects move as one unit
External Forces – Forces exerted on any part of the system by any body outside the system

E. Work, Energy, Power

Work – the product of force and displacement

Where:
W = work
F = force
Δx = displacement

NOTE: A force does no work if it is perpendicular to the displacement

Example: A 100N block lies on a frictionless surface. A force of 20N was applied horizontally
where the block had moved 5m. Find the work done by the force and weight of the block.

Given:
Weight of the block = 100N
Force applied = 20N
Displacement = 5m
Find: Work by the force and weight
Solution:

i)

ii)

The work done by the weight is equal to zero since it is perpendicular to the displacement.

Energy – capacity to do work

- a scalar quantity

Types of Mechanical Energy

a) Potential Energy – The energy stored on an object due to its position.

i) Gravitational Potential Energy

Where:
PE = Potential Energy
m = mass
g = gravitational acceleration
h = height

ii) Elastic Potential – energy stored on an elastic material due to its stretching or
compressing
68
 Where:
PE = Potential Energy
k = force constant of the spring
Δx = extension/compression of the spring

b) Kinetic Energy – energy of an object in motion

Where:
KE = Kinetic energy
m = mass
v = velocity

69