International Journal of Advances in Engineering and Management (IJAEM)

Volume 2, Issue 7, pp: 168-172 www.ijaem.net ISSN: 2395-5252

Language as a Cognitive Process: A Higher Level Analysis

Dr. Surendra Pal Singh
Assistant Professor Department of Teacher Education D.S. College, Aligarh

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Date of Submission: 20-09-2020 Date of Acceptance: 02-10-2020
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I. INTRODUCTION : semantics focuses on the meaning of words and

Language is the principal means by which sentences. Basic Units of Language: Phonemes and
we acquire and express knowledge; thus, the study Morphemes All languages are made of basic
of how language is used is a central concern of sounds called phonemes. Adult human beings can
cognitive psychology. In the present article we will produce approximately 100 phonemes, and the
do an overview of the research on the processes of English language is made up. of about 45 phonemes.
language involving the comprehension and Languages vary in the number of phonemes,
expression of Language. How do we understand ranging from as 15 to as many as 85. One reason
language, given its multifaceted encoding? One why it is difficult for many Americans to learn
approach to this question centers on the foreign languages is that different phonemes are
psychological processes involved in speech used. For instance, Germanic and Slavic languages
perception. It also considers how listeners deal with contain phonemes never used in the English
the peculiarities resulting from the acoustic language.
transmission of language. A, second, more
linguistically oriented approach focuses on descriptions Higher Levels of Linguistic Analysis :
of the grammatical structure of language. Finally, a The study of speech sounds which make up
third approach examines the psycholinguistic a language is called phonology, and the study of
processes involved in language comprehension at the how these sounds combine to produce
discourse macro-level of analysis. All three morphemes is called morphology. However,
approaches overlap to some degree and offer psychologists are frequently interested in a more
interesting insights into the nature of language, its global analysis of language than is provided by
use, and understanding. phonology and morphology. Psychological
investigations of language typically adopt words,
Structure of Language : phrases, sentences, or prose, rather than more
Theoretical intervention about the elementary speech sounds, as the most fundamental
process which leads to the understanding of an unit of analysis.
utterance in communication should involve two
aspects. Firstly, the aspects of language linked to the There are several levels at which these higher-order
recognition of the form of the utterance itself analyses can be made.
(phonology, morphology, and syntax); secondly, 1. First, one could analyse the lexical content of a
questions about how the meaning of what is sentence or of some other unit of language
understood can be defined, which are linked to production. When a lexical analysis is
semantics and pragmatics of the communication performed, the question is simply, what words
process. These two aspects cannot be separated, and are used, and how many times they are used in
in order to analyse the process of language, both are this sample of language? Information gained
to be taken into consideration. Thus, to understand from lexical analysis of language, such as that
the language processes, it is fundamental to by Thorndike and Lorge, has proved to be very
understand the basic structure of language first. As useful in predicting the ease with which different
should be evident by now, language can be divided words can be learned in laboratory situations.
into three basic parts, each with its own structure 2. At another level of linguistic analysis, the
and rules: phonology, syntax (grammar), and syntactic content of language text may be
semantics. The first of these, phonology, concerns investigated. In the study of syntax, interest is
the rules for pronunciation of speech sounds. The focused on the arrangement or ordering of
second aspect of language, syntax, deals with the words to form phrases and sentences. The
way words combine to form sentences. And question asked in this type of analysis is, how

DOI: 10.35629/5252-0207168172 | Impact Factor value 7.429 | ISO 9001: 2008 Certified Journal Page 168
 International Journal of Advances in Engineering and Management (IJAEM)
Volume 2, Issue 7, pp: 168-172 www.ijaem.net ISSN: 2395-5252

is this phase (or sentence) structured? Information contained in a linguistic

Psychologists and linguists interested in message tends to be comprehended, and sometimes
syntactic theory have attempted to specify is remembered, in syntactically defined chunks,
rules that account for the productivity of although semantically based chunking also may be
language (Chomsky, 1985). The set of rules used, depending on the demands placed upon the
indicating how the elements of the language listener and the nature of the material (Marschark,
may be combined to make intelligible sentences 1979). Thus, the phrase structure of a sentence
is referred to as a grammar. Although a large appears to play an important organisational role in
number of different grammars have been language processing at a very basic level (Ferreira
proposed, there is little agreement about the & Clifton, 1986).
necessary features of an adequate grammar
3. Third level of analysis of language is the one Processes in Language :
that considers the semantic content or meaning There are basic processes in language. The focus is
of passage. This perspective on language of three processes:
results in the asking of questions such as the (i) Production of language,
following: What does the passage (ii) Speech perception and comprehension, and
communicate? What is the meaning of this (iii) Language development
particular sentence?
4. In order to understand language in an adult, it is Production of Language: The beginning of a
necessary to examine the structure of sentences. dialogue is usually the production of speech by one
At one level of analysis, a sentence can be of the participants, although a gesture or other sign
regarded simply as a string of phonemes. At may initiate such an interaction and have its origins
another level, a sentence can be regarded as in a similar verbal plan (McNeil, 1985). But, before
series of morphemes, which are grouping of uttering a sentence or manually expressing any
phonemes. From this viewpoint, however, the information, the speaker must do some planning
sentence is viewed as a string of words. based on the intended effect the utterance is to have
Linguists have found it more useful to describe on the listener; based on the speaker‟s knowledge
a sentence in terms of phrases, which are of the listener‟s scope of understanding and based
grouping of words. on the syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic form that
5. Analysis of a sentence into its various phrases the production and its desired effects requires.
describes the phrase structure of a sentence. A Thus, speaking is very much an instrumental act,
sentence is viewed as composed of two basic which is to say that speakers talk in order to
phrases, a noun phrase and a verb phrase, produce an effect of some kind. The process of
which in turn are composed of subcomponents. speaking is basically concerned with planning and
Sentences with essentially a single deep execution. But just how is speech planned and
structure and two or more surface structures are executed? Clark & Clark (1977) described a rough
synonymous. Sentences with different deep structures outline of this process, which involves five steps.
and the same surface structure are ambiguous. Thus, The first step for speakers is to decide on the
important problem remaining concerns the kind of discourse to be initiated, which is the issue of
theoretical rules by which the deep structure of a discourse plans. Do they want to engage in a
sentence comes to be realised in a particular surface conversation, to describe an event, to give
structure. Rules for the specification of this linkage instructions, or to regale a friend with a humorous
process, called transformational rules, have been story? Each type of discourse has a particular
developed by Noam Chomsky (Chomsky, 1965, structure, and speakers must plan their utterances to
1975) and other linguists. fit that structure. For example, if you are telling a
Transformational rules have clear joke, you first describe the setting or context, then
implications about what features of sentences describe the sequence of events, and end with the
human beings do store in memory. If the sentence is punch line. If you fail to follow this structure, you
simple, then features of the surface structure may be obviously will not be an effective joke teller. If you
stored. As sentences become more complex, what give away the joke by accidently telling the punch
is thought to be stored is some underlying base line before the appropriate time, you will.
structure, or schema, plus one or more “footnotes” The second stage of speech production
that serve as rules necessary to regenerate the involves planning of sentences, the components of
sentence in its original surface form. Thus, what is discourse. Once the nature of discourse is decided,
stored is some coded representation of the complex specific sentences that will accomplish the
sentence. objective must then be selected. The speech act, the

DOI: 10.35629/5252-0207168172 | Impact Factor value 7.429 | ISO 9001: 2008 Certified Journal Page 169
 International Journal of Advances in Engineering and Management (IJAEM)
Volume 2, Issue 7, pp: 168-172 www.ijaem.net ISSN: 2395-5252

propositional content, and the thematic structure hand, we can perceive only about two thirds of a
need to be determined. The order in which single phonemes per second of non speech sounds
sentences are produced and the type of information (Warren et al., 1969). This is why foreign languages
to be conveyed must be thought about. For example, are difficult to understand when we hear them.
suppose you are describing your new house. You Even if we can read them, the sounds of their
might first describe the location; next, you might letters and letter combinations may be different from
describe the overall type of house; then you might the sounds corresponding to the same letters and letter
proceed to describe the floor plan and arrangement combinations in our native language. The
of rooms and, finally, give sfics of each room. comprehension of speech begins with the perception
Notice that there is a structure that involves going of raw speech sounds. Comprehension starts where
from global, or general information, to speech production ends. Speakers produce a stream
progressively more specific details. of sounds that arrive at the listener‟s ears; then,
The third phase of speech production deals listeners are able to analyse the sound patterns and
with constituent plans of the sentence. Once a to comprehend them. Speech perception is not,
sentence is decided on, its components must then however, the simple identification of sounds. It
be planned. The appropriate words, phrases, and so involves the complex processes of encoding and
forth must be picked out and put in the right order. comprehension. In other words, interpretative
These first three phases describe three levels of processes, meaning, contextual influences, and the
planning. At the most general level, planning is like play important roles in speech perception.
directed towards the type of discourse. At the next Thus, the transformation from raw speech
level, planning concerns the type of sentence to be sounds to propositions in memory is a complex
uttered. At the third level, planning deals with process. The physical signal that reaches the ear
specific components of the sentence.An interesting consists of rapid vibrations of air. While the sounds
feature of slips of the tongue is that they point out of speech correlate with particular component
regularities in the planning stages of productions. frequencies, there is no direct one-to-one
For example, slips are seldom “illegal” correspondence between the sounds of speech and
combinations of sounds for the language; the perception of listeners. Recognition of words is
morphemes tend to slip as entire units (Clark & very much dependent on context, explanations, and
Clark, 1977). Some classics slips are known as knowledge. For example, a hungry child can
“bloopers” in the world of radio and television. interpret the question “Have you washed your
Some bloopers are fairly obvious. For example, an hands for dinner?” as a call to come directly to
announcer for the „Friendly Homemaker Program‟ dinner (i.e., as indirect speech act rather than a
said, “And now we present our homely friend direct question).The role of context also can be easily
maker. Another example is a remark of the seen in complete sentences in which context allows
commentator covering visit of the king and queen words to be inferred quite easily. For example, the
of England: “When they arrive, you will hear a 21 sentence “The young girl was awakened by her
son salute.” frightening d….” allows listeners to infer dream.
The fourth phase of speech production There is no need to think about what the word
deals with what is called the articulatory program. might be; it just seems to pop out automatically.A
This concerns the plans for the execution of similar context effect was studied in the laboratory
speech, which is a coordinated sequence of of Warren (Warren & Obusek, 1971) using
muscular contractions in and about the mouth. And phonemes. Subjects were read sentences that had a
the final phase of speech production is articulation single speech sound obscured. For example, the
itself. This is the actual output of speech. Interested sentence “The state governors met with the
readers are referred to Clark & Clark (1977) and respective legislatures convening in the capital
Levelt (1989) for a detailed discussion of planning city” had the first s in legislatures masked by a
and execution of speech. coughing sound. The experimenter then asked the
subjects to identify where the cough had occurred.
Speech Perception and Comprehension : To [The results indicated that subjects somehow
understand speech is crucial to human “restored” the missing s sound and were unable to
communication. Hence, speech perception is locate the interjected cough.]The phenomenon,
fundamental to language use in our day to day life. appropriately called phonemic restoration, has been
We are able to perceive speech with amazing shown to be even more likely when more than a
rapidity. On the one hand, we can perceive as many single word can result from the restoration and other
as fifty phonemes per second in a language in which speech researchers have demonstrated that words
we are fluent (Foulke & Sticht, 1969). On the other usually run together as sound patterns. This is seen

DOI: 10.35629/5252-0207168172 | Impact Factor value 7.429 | ISO 9001: 2008 Certified Journal Page 170
 International Journal of Advances in Engineering and Management (IJAEM)
Volume 2, Issue 7, pp: 168-172 www.ijaem.net ISSN: 2395-5252

by use of a spectrograph, an electronic device for speech sounds is only the first step in acquiring
measuring the variations in energy expended when language. The sounds must come to represent
a person talks. Moreover, it is often the case that a objects, symbols, and events in the child‟s
single word cannot be recognised correctly when it environment and they must acquire meaning for the
is taken out of its sentence context. This was shown child. Children are familiar with many aspects of
some years ago by Pollack and Pickett (1963), who their environment before they learn to speak. Their
played different segments of a normal conversation parents, toys, pets, siblings, and household objects
for subjects. When the subjects heard just one word are familiar One popular view of the acquisition of
from the conversation, it was often word meaning is that children learn semantic
incomprehensible. Without the context of the features and then attempt to apply an original word
meaningful sentence, the single word could not be that includes the features to objects that share those
understood. features. For example, a child may learn the word
More generally, an important feature of speech ball and then overgeneralise it to other round
perception is that speech is not comprehended objects such as moon and orange. Gradually, the
simply on the basis of the sounds per se. Rather, child begins to construct more complex sentences
speech is comprehended on the basis of many that take on the characteristics of adult language. This
additional factors (e.g., intentions, context, and is an enormously challenging task (Brown, 1973).
expectations) from which an interpretation of what What the child learns are sets of grammatical,
the speaker says is constructed. semantic, and pragmatic rules for constructing
One main approach equates processes of sentences. Usually, children are unable to verbalise
speech perception with processes of auditory the rules, but their linguistic performance indicates
perception of other sounds. These kinds of theories that they do possess linguistic competence, the
emphasises either template-matching or feature- knowledge necessary to produce all and only those
detection processes. Such theories postulate that situations of a given language. Indeed, many adults
there are distant stages of neural processing. In one who speak grammatically acceptable English are
stage speech sounds are analysed into their unable to specify the rules they use. But these rules
components. In another stage these components are allow us to generate the almost infinite number of
analysed for patterns and matched to a prototype or sentences. One of the best pieces of evidence for
template (Kuhl, 1991; Massaro, 1987). One theory of learning syntactic rules is the phenomenon of over
this kind is the phonetic refinement theory (Pisoni generalization. For example, children learn to say
et al.,1985), which says that we start with an went correctly, apparently by rote, then learn the
analysis of auditory sensations and shift to higher rule of forming the past tense by adding ed, and
level processing. A similar theoretical idea is then incorrectly as goed. They later learn the
embodied by the TRACE model (McClleland & exception to the rule and go back saying went.
Elman, 1986). According to this model, speech Similar over generalizations occur in deaf child‟s
perception begins with three levels of feature acquisition of sign language. This brief description
detection: the level of acoustic features, the level of only begins to sketch some of the complexities of
phonemes, and the level of words. According to language development. What is clear is that young
this theory, speech perception is highly interactive. children have an enormously complex task in
Lower levels affect higher levels and vice versa. learning to speak, read, and use language in a
One attribute of these theories have in meaningful fashion. The fact that human beings
common is that they all require decision- making can acquire and use language emerges as a
process above and beyond feature detection or remarkable achievement. Finally, relating language
template matching. Thus, the speech we perceive development to the earlier discussion on speech
may differ from the speech sounds that actually acts, there have also been some interesting
reach our ears. The reason is that cognitive and findings. For example, it appears that younger
contextual factors influence our perception of sense children view the meaning of “I Promise”
signal. For example, the phonemic-restoration effect differently than do older children and adults.
involves integrating what we know with what we According to philosopher Sourly (1969), certain
hear when we perceive speech (Samuel, 1981; conditions must be present for a sincere promise to
Warren, 1970). Language acquisition and be made. One condition is that the person making
development follows a fairly orderly course. (This the commitment actually intends to carry out the
order has been discussed in detail in the earlier chapter promised action. A second condition is that it is
on Language Acquisition). Here we will focus on apparent that the person to whom the promise is
development of semantics which ultimately help the directed desires the action to be carried out. In a
child in comprehending the language. Making recent study, Bernicot & Laval (1996) report that 3-

DOI: 10.35629/5252-0207168172 | Impact Factor value 7.429 | ISO 9001: 2008 Certified Journal Page 171
 International Journal of Advances in Engineering and Management (IJAEM)
Volume 2, Issue 7, pp: 168-172 www.ijaem.net ISSN: 2395-5252

year-olds have difficulty understanding only the governing memory processes; and, in Kintsch‟s
second condition. But, by age 10, children evaluate system, they consist of a predicate and one or more
both conditions equivalently well in determining the arguments. Predicates corresponds to verbs,
outcome of a scenario (concerning the occurrence of adjectives, adverbs, or connectives in the words a
the promised activity), where these conditions person reads or hears. This is called the surface
were manipulated. structure, a term already discussed in previous
The findings indicate that the meaning of sections. Arguments correspond to nouns, noun
“I Promise” is quite different, depending on the age phrases, or clauses.In the Kintsch‟s and Keenan‟s
of the child to whom it is said. Specifically the experiment, subjects were presented with sentences
understanding of the contextual circumstances similar to those just discussed above by means of
underlying the making of a verbal commitment slides. The subjects were asked to read each sentence
increments with age. Initially, children are primarily and then to write it. They could then advance the
concerned with whether the promised activity slides and see the next sentence. Time taken in reading
simply occurred; as they grow older, they begin to each sentence was noted. The authors found an
grasp the intentions of the speaker in evaluating extraordinarily consistent relationship between
the likely outcome of that activity (Astington, the number of propositions and the time required
1988). to read the sentences. the approaches that have been
taken in exploring many of the issues involved in the
Comprehensive Model of Language Processing : perceptual analysis of language and lexical
This article has progressed systematically processing merely scratch the surface of the
from the simple linguistic entities (phonemes and complexity of both theory and fact that must be
morphemes), to syntax and grammar, to speech developed to provide a sufficient characterisation of
perception and comprehension. One might wonder, the cognitive system. Language processing requires a
whether there are any comprehensive theories of multidisciplinary examination. To conclude, we can
language. In fact there are many. One by Kintsch is say that, like many other cognitive process, language
particularly significant because it incorporates processing is a very dynamic and complex process.
many bits of wisdom from earlier studies and, at No single method, function or theory can explain the
the same time contains a model of the mind. Let‟s process of language completely in itself; only a
discuss now the principal components of the most comprehensive approach should be appropriate and
influential, extensive and comprehensive model of applied for the comprehension of language.
language processing by Kintsch and van Dijk.
Kintsch’s Model of Comprehension : This model REFERENCES
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DOI: 10.35629/5252-0207168172 | Impact Factor value 7.429 | ISO 9001: 2008 Certified Journal Page 172