VOLTAGE SOURCES

A voltage source is an essential component in electrical circuits, providing a fixed or variable voltage
to drive current through connected loads. There are two main types: ideal and practical voltage
sources.

An Ideal voltage source provides a constant voltage regardless of the current drawn from it. A
practical voltage source provides a voltage that is slightly dependent on the current drawn from it.
The voltage drops slightly as the current drawn increases. Here is a table illustrating the example

Current Drawn 9 V ideal source 9V practical source (battery)

0 9V 9V
1A 9V 8.99V
3A 9V 8.97V
10A 9V 8.9V
30A 9V 8.7V
100A 9V 8V

Examples of Real-Life Voltage Sources

 Batteries: DC voltage sources for small electronics, eg. AA, AAA etc

 Regulated Power Supplies: Convert AC to regulated DC voltage.

 Solar Panels: Variable DC voltage based on light conditions.

 AC Generators: Supply AC power to electrical grids.

In the laboratory, we mainly use Regulated Power supplies. Batteries and Solar panels are examples
of unregulated power supplies.

An example of the Power supplies used in the lab is the Yihua 1502DD shown below along with all its
constituent parts. All power supplies will have the same parts, but maybe at different locations
1. + : The positive supply terminal
2. - : The negative supply terminal
3. Earth: Plays a role in safety. As the name suggests, connected to the Earth. In the event of an
internal fault (such as a short circuit where the live wire touches the metal chassis), the earth
pin provides a low-resistance path for the fault current to flow directly to the ground. This
prevents electric shock to users.
4. Voltage Display: Shows the voltage between the + and - terminals
5. Current Display: Shows the current being drawn from the Supply
6. Coarse voltage control: A small movement in this knob results in a relatively large change in
the output voltage
7. Fine Voltage control: A large movement in this knob results in a relatively small change in the
output voltage
8. Air Fins: Air circulation to prevent heat buildup in the device which could damage
components
9. Metal Case: Acts as a passive heat sink, allowing heat generated by internal components to
be dissipated efficiently into the surrounding air. Electrically the case is connected to the
earth and reduces the risk of electric shock.
 DIGITAL MULTIMETER
A DMM (Digital Multimeter) is an versatile electronic measuring instrument used to measure various
electrical parameters such as:

Primary Functions of a DMM:

1. Voltage Measurement (AC/DC): Measures the voltage across a circuit in volts (V).

2. Current Measurement (AC/DC): Measures the flow of current in amperes (A).

3. Resistance Measurement: Measures the resistance of components in ohms (Ω).

4. Continuity Testing: Checks if a circuit is complete; emits a beep if there's continuity.

5. Diode Testing: Tests if a diode conducts properly in one direction.

6. Transistor hFE

Application: Electronic/Electrical Troubleshooting Essential for diagnosing electrical problems in

circuits, electronic devices, and home wiring.

Given below is the front panel of a DMM

1. Display Screen: Shows measurement readings, unit symbols (V, A, Ω), and sometimes additional
information like the range or mode.
2. Rotary Selector (Function Dial)

 Used to select the measurement type and range, such as:

o DC Voltage (V—)

o AC Voltage (V~)

o DC Current (A—)

o Resistance (Ω)

o Continuity Test (with buzzer icon)

o Diode Testing Mode (with diode symbol)

o Capacitance, Frequency, and Temperature (on advanced models)

3. Input Jacks (Terminals)

Most DMMs have three or four input jacks:

 COM (Common or Ground Terminal)

o Always connects the black probe.

o Acts as the reference point for all measurements.

 V/Ω/mA Terminal

o Connect the red probe here to measure voltage, resistance, and current (in
milliamps).

o Some meters split these into separate V and Ω jacks.

 10A or High-Current Terminal

o Used for measuring currents above the milliamp range, usually up to 10A or more.

4. Probes (Test Leads): Black probe goes into the COM jack, and red probe goes into the appropriate
jack for the type of measurement.
 BREADBOARD
A breadboard is a rectangular plastic board with a grid of holes used to build and test
electrical circuits without soldering. It allows users to quickly connect electronic components and
wires to create temporary or prototype circuits.

Key Features:

1. Holes (Contact Points):

o Designed to hold component leads and jumper wires.

o Typically arranged in rows and columns.

2. Power Rails (Vertical Strips):

o Marked by red (+) and blue (-) lines on the sides.

o Used to supply power/ground to the circuit.

o Vertical Strips along the red Lines carry the power and are all internally connected

o Those along the blue lines carry the ground and are all internally connected as well

3. Terminal Strips (Horizontal Rows):

o The central area of the board where components are placed.

o Each row is electrically connected underneath.

4. No Soldering Required:

o Components are easily inserted and removed.

How It Works:

 Insert components like resistors, LEDs, transistors, ICs (DIP Package only) into the holes.

 Use jumper wires to connect different parts of the circuit.

 Connect the power rails to a voltage source (such as a battery or power supply).

Applications:

 Prototyping: Test and debug circuit designs before permanent assembly.

 Educational Projects: Ideal for beginners learning electronics.

 Circuit Experiments: Quickly explore new ideas without complex setups.

The Figure below shows the internal wiring of a breadboard, note the power rails (red), ground rails
(blue) and the horizontal strips (green)

BREADBOARD USAGE GUIDELINES

When using a breadboard, following best practices ensures reliable connections, easy
troubleshooting and prolong breadboard life

1. Power and Ground Management: Use the Power Rails Properly

a. Connect the positive supply (Vcc, V+) to the red rail.
b. Connect the ground (GND, 0V) to the blue rail.

2. Power Wires
a. Keep them as short as possible to reduce IR drops
b. Use red colored wires for power connections
c. Use black colored wires for ground connection

3. Component Placement & Connections

a. Keep Related Components Close Together
b. Dual in-line package (DIP) ICs should straddle the middle groove, so each pin
connects to a separate row.
c. Make sure resistor leads, transistors, and IC pins are pushed in completely for good
contact. Insert Components Fully to avoid loose connections but make sure it is not
too deep as Inserting wires too deep can bend or misalign internal contacts.
d. Push leads in straight, not at an angle, to avoid bending internal metal contacts.
e. Avoid inserting thick or rough cut or Soldered leads as they will damage the
breadboard internal connections. If using solid-core wire, ensure it is 22 AWG
(optimal thickness for breadboards).
f. Insert Components Gently
g. Insert ICs evenly by slightly rocking them back and forth.
h. Don't Insert Overheated or

4. Signal connections
a. Avoid Overlapping Wires
b. Use any other color jumper wires apart from red and black for signal connections
5. Safety & Maintenance
a. Turn Off Power Before Making Changes, this prevents accidental short circuits and
component damage.
b. Avoid Excessive Bending of Component Lead, Repeated bending can weaken leads,
causing breakage.
c. Remove Components Properly, Use a small flat tool (or fingernails) to gently lift
components instead of yanking them. For tightly inserted components, remove them
one pin at a time to prevent stress on contacts.
d. Avoid High Current (>1A) or High Voltage (>12V): Most breadboards are rated for 1A
max, and excessive current can melt the plastic or damage the contacts.
e. Minimize Frequent Plugging/Unplugging of Power Wires. Repeated insertions loosen
power rail contacts over time.
f. Store in a Dust-Free Environment. Dust or dirt can reduce contact reliability. Use a
sealed container or keep it covered when not in use.
g. Avoid Eating or Drinking Near the Breadboard. Liquids and food particles can cause
corrosion or short circuits.

CIRCUIT SIMULATORS
A circuit simulator is a software tool used to model and analyze electronic circuits before building
them physically. It helps engineers, students, and researchers design and test circuits without using
real components.

How Circuit Simulators Work

 A user creates a circuit schematic by placing components (resistors, capacitors, transistors,

etc.).

 The simulator solves complex mathematical equations (based on Kirchhoff’s laws, Ohm’s
law, SPICE models, etc.).

 It generates waveforms, voltage/current plots, and transient responses, showing how the
circuit behaves under different conditions.

Types of Circuit Simulations

1. DC Analysis – Computes steady-state voltages and currents in the circuit.

2. AC Analysis – Determines frequency response and gain of amplifiers.
3. Transient Analysis – Simulates time-based behavior (e.g., switching circuits).

Popular Circuit Simulators

1. LTSpice – Free, great for power electronics and analog circuits.

2. Proteus – Includes microcontroller simulation (Arduino, PIC, etc.).
3. Multisim – User-friendly, commonly used in education.
4. PSpice – Advanced SPICE-based simulator for professional use.

Why Use a Circuit Simulator?

1. Saves Cost – No need to buy physical components.

2. Detects Errors Early – Find design flaws before prototyping.
3. Safe Testing – Avoid damaging real components with wrong connections.
4. Optimizes Performance – Fine-tune parameters like gain, power, and stability.
5. Educational Tool – Helps students learn electronics without expensive lab equipment.

FUNCTION GENERATOR
A function generator is an electronic device used to generate various types of electrical waveforms
over a wide range of frequencies. These waveforms can be used for testing, troubleshooting, and
designing electronic circuits and systems. Common waveforms produced by function generators
include:

1. Sine Wave: A smooth, periodic oscillation that represents a pure frequency.

2. Square Wave: A waveform that alternates between two levels, typically high and low, with
equal duration.

3. Triangle Wave: A waveform that rises and falls linearly, creating a triangular shape.

4. Sawtooth Wave: A waveform that ramps upward and then drops sharply, resembling the
teeth of a saw.

Key Features of Function Generators:

 Frequency Range: Function generators can produce signals from a few hertz (Hz) up to
several megahertz (MHz) or even gigahertz (GHz), depending on the model.

 Amplitude Control: Users can adjust the amplitude (voltage level) of the output signal.

 Offset Control: Allows the addition of a DC offset to the signal, shifting the entire waveform
up or down.

 Duty cycle control for rectangular waves

 Output Impedance: Typically 50 ohms, matching standard test equipment and transmission
lines.

Applications:

 Testing and Troubleshooting: Used to simulate signals in electronic circuits to test their
response.

 Education and Training: Commonly used in laboratories for teaching and learning purposes.

Types of Function Generators:

1. Analog Function Generators: Use analog circuitry to generate waveforms. They are generally
simpler and less expensive but may have limited frequency range and stability.

2. Digital Function Generators: Use digital signal processing (DSP) techniques to generate
waveforms. They offer greater precision, stability, and a wider range of features.

FRONT PANEL INTERFACE

The Front panel interface of a function generator is shown below

1. Display screen: shows frequency, amplitude, waveform type, offset, etc

2. Navigation buttons: These permit the selection of Waveform type, offset, amplitude, duty
cycle, amplitude, frequency
o Wave/Pgup
o Ampl/PgDn
o Set
o Shift
3. Other menu button
o Ch1/Ch2: Channel Selector button: Permit either channel 1 or channel 2 output
o Out: Output enable

4. Channel outputs: The output of the function generator is obtained from here via a BNC
cable.

5. Rotary adjustment: Permits adjustment of frequency, amplitude, offset, duty cycle and other
quantities

6. Indicator LEDs: Indicate whether

o Channel 1 or 2 is enabled

o Whether output is enabled

7. There is also a power button in the front panel of several function generators, but in this
model, the switch is at the back panel
 BNC CONNECTORS
A BNC connector is a common type of coaxial cable connector used in electronics. It is widely used
for connecting test equipment, such as function generators, oscilloscopes, and other devices, due to
its reliability and ease of use.

Key Features of a BNC Connector:

1. Bayonet Mounting Mechanism:

o The connector uses a bayonet-style locking mechanism, which allows it to be quickly

connected and securely locked in place with a simple twist.

o This makes it easy to attach and detach without needing to screw it in like some
other connectors.

2. Coaxial Design: BNC connectors are designed for coaxial cables, which consist of a central
conductor surrounded by an insulating layer, a metallic shield, and an outer insulating layer.

o This design ensures good signal integrity and minimizes interference.

3. Impedance: BNC connectors are typically designed for 50-ohm or 75-ohm impedance
systems.

4. Frequency Range: BNC connectors can handle frequencies up to 4 GHz, making them
suitable for a wide range of applications, including RF and high-speed digital signals.

5. Durability: BNC connectors are robust and can withstand repeated connections and
disconnections, making them ideal for laboratory and field use.

How to Connect a BNC Connector:

1. Align the connector with the BNC port on the device.

2. Push the connector into the port.

3. Twist the connector clockwise until it locks into place (usually about a quarter turn).

To disconnect, simply twist the connector counterclockwise and pull it out.

OSCILLOSCOPE PROBE
An oscilloscope probe is a critical accessory that connects the oscilloscope to the circuit or device
under test. It ensures accurate signal transmission of the voltage waveform being sensed. The key
components commonly found in most oscilloscope probes are

1. Probe Tip: To Make a direct contact with the test point in the circuit. Usually a sharp,
pointed tip for precise connection.
2. Ground Lead: Provides a reference ground connection for the probe and is
Connected to the ground of the circuit under test to complete the signal path.
3. Probe Body: Houses the internal components of the probe.
4. Attenuation Switch: Allows selection between different attenuation ratios (e.g., 1x,
10x).
5. Connector: BNC or other type for connecting to the oscilloscope.
6. Cable: Transmits the signal from the probe tip to the oscilloscope. This is usually a
Coaxial cable.
7. BNC Connector: Connects the probe to the oscilloscope's input channel.

LM 741 IC
The LM741 is one of the most widely used operational amplifiers (op-amps) in electronics.
Introduced by Fairchild Semiconductor in 1968, it has become a standard component in analog
circuit design due to its versatility, reliability, and ease of use. To Familiarize students with it’s usage,
we are starting by using it as a comparator in all our labs. A comparator is a circuit that compares
two voltage levels. The figure below is a datasheet extract that is sufficient for our purposes. It talks
about the Pin functionality

Generally Pins 1 and 5 are not used. The operation of the LM741 as a comparator is as follows

If non-inverting input > inverting input , then Output = V+,

If non-inverting input < inverting input , then Output = V-

Thus the LM741 compares voltage levels at Pins 2 and 3, i.e. the non-inverting input and the
inverting input. The maximum ratings are given below. The most relevant for the student is the rating
that pertains to supply voltage. The Lab we use it at either a 9V or a 15V supply

NE555
The NE555 (often simply referred to as the 555 timer IC) is one of the most popular and versatile
integrated circuits ever created. Introduced by Signetics in 1971, it has become a staple in electronics
due to its simplicity, reliability, and wide range of applications. The 555 timer is used in timing, pulse
generation, and oscillator circuits, and it can operate in three main modes: astable, monostable,
and bistable. In our labs, we mainly use it in the Astable mode. In the Astable mode, the NE555

1. Acts as an oscillator (free-running).

2. Generates a continuous square wave.
3. Commonly used in applications like LED flashers, tone generation, and clock signals.
4. Timing is determined by two resistors and a capacitor (RA, RB and C)

The pin diagram is given below

The Pin functions are shown below

In the Lab, we use the NE555 with a 9V or 15V supply. The circuit and waveforms for astable
operation are shown below. This circuit is the subject of Project 2
 CD4017 IC
The CD4017 is a popular CMOS decade counter/divider integrated circuit that is widely used in digital
electronics for counting and sequencing applications. It is part of the 4000 series of CMOS logic chips
and is known for its versatility, low power consumption, and ease of use. The CD4017 counts from 0
to 9 (10 states) and then resets to 0, advancing the counter on the rising edge of the clock signal. It
has 10 decoded outputs (Q0 to Q9), which go high one at a time in sequence as the counter
advances. Typically operates between 3V and 15V, making it compatible with a wide range of power
supplies. The Pin and functional Diagrams are shown below

1. The Decoded Decimal output “0” is connected to Pin 3, The

Decoded decimal output “1” is connected to Pin 2 and so
on and so forth.

2. VSS (Ground): Connects to the ground of the circuit.

3. Carry-Out (CO): Provides a carry signal for cascading.

4. Clock Enable (CE): When low, allows the clock input to

advance the counter.

5. Clock (CLK): Advances the counter on the rising edge.

6. Reset (RST): Resets the counter to Q0 when high.

7. VDD (Power Supply): Connects to the positive supply

voltage (3V to 15V).

The CD4017 timing diagram which illustrates the operation of the CD4017 is given below

1. The CD4017 advances its output

sequence on the rising edge of
the clock signal (CLK).

2. Only one output (“0” to “9”) is

high at any given time, and the
sequence progresses from Q0 to
Q9.

3. After Q9, the counter resets to

Q0 and starts again.

4. The Carry-Out (CO) pin can be

used to cascade multiple CD4017
ICs for longer counting
Example Circuit: LED Chaser

A common application of the CD4017 is an LED chaser, where LEDs light up one after another in
sequence. Here's how it works:

1. Connect LEDs (with current-limiting resistors) to the outputs (Q0 to Q9).

2. Provide a clock signal (e.g., from a 555 timer) to the CLK pin.

3. The LEDs will light up in sequence, creating a chasing effect

4. This is the subject of Project 3

 7 Segment Display
7-segment displays are one of the simplest and most common ways to display numerical information
in electronic devices. They consist of seven individual light-emitting diodes (LEDs) or liquid crystal
display (LCD) segments arranged in a specific pattern to represent numbers, letters, and some
symbols.

A 7-segment display has seven individual segments labeled A to G, arranged in a figure-eight

pattern. This is illustrated in the Figure below

The configuration shown on the left is the

Common Cathode (CC):

All the cathodes of the LEDs are connected

together to the ground.

To light up a segment, a positive voltage is

applied to the corresponding anode.

Example: To display the number "7," segments A,

B, and C are powered.

Some 7 Segment displays have an optional eighth segment, called the decimal point (DP), is often
included for displaying decimal numbers.
 CD 4033 IC
1. The CD4033 is a CMOS decade counter/divider IC with a 7-segment display driver. It is part of
the 4000 series of CMOS logic chips and is widely used in applications where counting and
displaying numbers on a 7-segment display are required. The CD4033 simplifies the process
of driving a 7-segment display by integrating a counter and a BCD to 7-Segment decoder into
a single chip.

1. Output a comes out of pin 10, output b

from pin 12 and so on and so forth

2. When used in conjunction with a 7

segment display, Output a should be
connected to Pin A in the 7-segment
display and will light up segment A. The
same follows for outputs b - g

3. VSS (Ground): Connects to the ground of

the circuit.

4. RBO (Ripple Blanking Output): Used for

cascading multiple CD4033 ICs.

5. RBI (Ripple Blanking Input): Used to

suppress leading or trailing zeros.

6. LT (Lamp Test): When low, all segments

are lit for testing.

7. CLK (Clock): Advances the counter on the

rising edge.

8. VDD (Power Supply): Connects to the

positive supply voltage (3V to 15V).

The Timing Diagram of the CD4033 is given below.

1. The CD4033 counts from 0 to 9 on the rising edge of the clock signal (CLK).

2. The integrated 7-segment decoder drives a common-cathode 7-segment display directly,

lighting up the appropriate segments to display the current count.

3. The Lamp Test (LT) pin, when pulled low, lights up all segments to test the display.
 4. The Ripple Blanking Input (RBI) and Ripple Blanking Output (RBO) pins are used to suppress
leading or trailing zeros in multi-digit displays, improving readability.

Example Circuit: Single-Digit Counter

A common application of the CD4033 is a single-digit counter that displays the count on a 7-segment
display. This is the subject of Project 4

1. Connect a common-cathode 7-segment display to the segment outputs (A-G) of the CD4033.

2. Provide a clock signal (e.g., from a 555 timer) to the CLK pin.

3. The display will show the count from 0 to 9, incrementing with each clock pulse.
 Musical Octaves
Musical octaves are one of the most fundamental concepts in music theory—and they’re all
about doubling or halving of frequency.

🎵 What is an Octave?

 An octave is the interval between one musical pitch and another with double (or
half) its frequency.

 For example:

o A note at 440 Hz (A₄)

o The note one octave above is 880 Hz (A₅)

o The note one octave below is 220 Hz (A₃)

🧠 Why is it Called “Octave”?

 “Octave” comes from Latin octavus = eighth.

 In traditional Indian scale, we have Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Da Ni Sa, the 8th note, Sa is the

same letter name as the first note Sa—but higher in pitch.

🌍 Octaves in Indian Classical Music

Indian classical music often uses ratios to express pitch intervals. If we set Sa = 240 Hz (for
example), the others are scaled accordingly. These are approximate just intonation ratios
used in Hindustani music:

Swara Ratio (to Sa) Frequency (if Sa = 240 Hz)

Sa 1/1 240 Hz

Re 9/8 270 Hz

Ga 5/4 300 Hz

Ma 4/3 320 Hz

Pa 3/2 360 Hz

Dha 5/3 400 Hz

Ni 15/8 450 Hz
Swara Ratio (to Sa) Frequency (if Sa = 240 Hz)

Sa (upper) 2/1 480 Hz

FREQUENCY RESPONSE AND HUMAN EAR

Frequency response is a measure of how a system (like an amplifier, speaker, sensor, filter, or
even your ear) responds to different frequencies of input signals.

Frequency response tells you how a system reacts to different frequencies of input. It's a
key property in audio, electronics, and communication systems.

In simple terms: It tells you how much output you get at each input frequency.

📊 Example:

Imagine sending in a pure tone (sine wave) at different frequencies—say, 100 Hz, 1 kHz, 10
kHz—and measuring how strong the output is for each.

You might get something like:

 100 Hz → Output = 0.9× input

 1 kHz → Output = 1× input

 10 kHz → Output = 0.5× input

This gives you a frequency response curve — a graph of gain (or attenuation) versus
frequency.

📌 Frequency Response = Behavior vs Frequency

Component Type Frequency Response Means...

Speaker How loudly it plays different pitches

Amplifier How much it boosts different audio frequencies

Microphone How well it captures low vs. high sounds

Circuit (Filter) Which frequencies pass through or get blocked

Human ear How sensitive we are to different frequencies

📐 What Does It Look Like?

A typical frequency response graph plots:

 X-axis: Frequency (Hz), often logarithmic scale

 Y-axis: Gain or attenuation (dB), or voltage ratio

A flat frequency response = all frequencies are treated equally

A non-flat one means some frequencies are boosted or cut

👂 What is Frequency Response of the Human Ear?

It refers to the range and sensitivity of human hearing across different frequencies. It tells
us:

 What range of frequencies we can hear

  How sensitive we are to each frequency

🎧 Frequency Range of Human Hearing

Age Group Approx. Frequency Range

Babies & Children 20 Hz – 20,000 Hz (20 kHz)

Adults ~20 Hz – 15,000–17,000 Hz

Seniors ~20 Hz – 12,000 Hz (or less)

✅ Most Sensitive Range:

2,000 to 5,000 Hz → This is where speech and important communication sounds occur. The
ear is most sensitive here.

📉 Equal-Loudness Curves (Fletcher-Munson Curves)

These curves show how loud different frequencies need to be for us to perceive them as
equally loud.

 At low volumes, we hear mid frequencies best (e.g., speech range).

 At higher volumes, low and high frequencies become more audible.

🔊 Example:

 A 50 Hz bass tone may need to be much louder than a 1,000 Hz tone to be perceived
equally loud.

📊 Summary

Parameter Value

Hearing Range ~20 Hz – 20 kHz

Most sensitive range 2 kHz – 5 kHz

High-frequency loss Common with age

Influences Audio, speech, product design