LIMITS OF ACCURACY

Senior secondary school mathematics

BY T.M MUSONDELA

Operation Minimum value Maximum Value

Addition LB + LB UB + UB
Subtraction LB - UB UB - LB
Multiplication LB x LB UB x UB
Division LB/UB UB/LB

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INTRODUCTION
Any recorded measurement will have been rounded off to some degree of accuracy. This defines the
possible true value before rounding off took place, and hence the limits of accuracy. The range of
values between the limits of accuracy is called the rounding error. Whenever we take a
measurement, there is always the possibility of error.

Errors are caused by inaccuracies in the measuring device we use, and in rounding off the
measurement we take. They can also be caused by human error, so we need to be careful when we
take measurements. Accuracy refers to how close a measured value is to the true value. If we
eliminate all systematic error, then we have achieved accuracy. Unfortunately we cannot eliminate
indeterminate error, so there will always be some uncertainty in your results. Precision refers to the
reproducibility of a given measurement. Accuracy refers to the agreement between a measurement (or
average several measurements) to the true or accepted value.
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the lesson you should be able to:
• Give appropriate upper and lower bounds for data given to a specified accuracy
• Obtain appropriate upper and lower bounds to solutions of simple problems given to a specified
accuracy
• Find the absolute error, relative errors and percentage errors.

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 HOW TO APPROACH THE TOPIC
Start this topic with examples to determine upper and lower bounds for data.
Start with simple examples and then progressively harder ones.
EXAMPLE
An item is weighs 53.7 kg correct to one decimal place. Find the lower and upper limits and hence
express the limits as inequality
Solution

53.6 53.7 53.8

LB UB
Since 53.7 is accurate to one decimal place, then 53.7 lies between 53.6 and 53.8. The lower bound is the
average of 53.6 and 53.7 and the upper bound is the average of 53.7 and 53.8
𝟓𝟑.𝟔 + 𝟓𝟑.𝟕 𝟓𝟑.𝟕 + 𝟓𝟑.𝟖
𝑳𝑩 = 𝟐 = 𝟓𝟑.𝟔𝟓 and 𝑳𝑩 = 𝟐 = 𝟓𝟑.𝟕𝟓
When we round off both the upper and lower limits to one decimal place we need to get 53.7. When we
round off the lower bound we get 53.7 and when we round of the upper bound we get 53.8 which is
outside the bounds. The smallest possible value is 53.65. and so, the largest possible value is
53.749999999… but once again we say 53.75 is the upper limit.
Hence the limits of accuracy are 53.65 ≤ 53.7 < 53.75

Note the use of the strict inequality (<) for the upper bound. If we use ≤ the rounded number would
be outside the limits.

ABSOLUTE ERROR
The difference between the true value and the upper or lower bounds is known as the
absolute error. Form the above example the absolute error is 𝟓𝟑.𝟕𝟓 - 𝟓𝟑.𝟕 = 𝟎.𝟎𝟓
LEAST UNIT OF MEASURE
The difference between the upper bound and lower bounds is known as the least unit of
measure. Form the above example the absolute error is
𝟓𝟑.𝟕𝟓 - 𝟓𝟑.𝟔𝟓 = 𝟎.𝟏
Absolute error is half of the least unit of measure

𝟏
Thus Absolute Error = 𝟐 × the least unit of measure

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 TOLERANCE
Tolerance is the total amount a specific dimension is permitted to vary from the specified
dimension. It is the difference between the greatest (maximum) and least (minimum)
acceptable measurement. Tolerance is the acceptable uncertainty.
METHODS OF EXPRESSING TOLERANCES
There are several methods of expressing tolerances in dimensions that are approved by ANSI
and they are as follows.
1. Plus-or-Minus dimensioning.
In this method the basic size (nominal or target value) of the dimension is given first,
followed by a plus-minus expression of tolerance. The result can be either unilateral, where
the tolerance only applies in one direction so that one value is zero, or bilateral, where either
the same or different values are added and subtracted as in the example below.
Example 1

+ 0.4cm
Given the following form of tolerance for a measurement: 5.3 cm
- 0.3cm
(a) State the maximum value. (b) State the minimum value. (c) State the tolerance.
Solution
(a) Maximum value 5.3cm + 0.4cm = 5.7
(b) Minimum value 5.3cm ‒ 0.3cm = 5.0
(c) the tolerance =5.7 ‒ 5.0 = 0.7

If the plus and minus values are the same, a single value is given, preceded by the
plus-or-minus symbol, in the example below
Example 2

Given the following form of tolerance for a measurement: (15 ± 0.5)g

(a) State the maximum value. (b) State the minimum value. (c) State the tolerance.
Solution
(a) Maximum value 15 + 0.5 cm = 15.5
(b) Minimum value 15 ‒ 0.5 = 14.5
(c) The tolerance = 15.5-14.5=1 or alternatively 0.5 ± 0.5 = 1

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2. Limit dimensioning.
In this preferred method, the maximum and minimum limits are specified. For example a
machine of diameter 10 mm may have the specification of 9.8 mm and 10.2 mm. so 10.2 mm-
9.8 mm= 0.4 mm is the tolerance. The combine tolerance expression of the same value is (10

± 0.2)mm
Example 3

(a) Find tolerance given that acceptable measurement lie between 9.8 and 10.1
(b) Express the range of measurement between 9.8 and 10.1 in the form of tolerance
expression(𝐴 ± 𝐵) g.
Solution
(a) 10.1- 9.8 = 0.3

(b) (10.12+ 9.8 ± 0.32)g.= (9.55 ± 0.15) g

The concept of tolerance is important when installing closet doors. There is a range of acceptable
values so that the closet doors will cover the door opening and still be able to close properly
Exercise
1. Consider the length, L = 24.2 ± 0.5 cm 2. Consider the mass, (15.4 ± 0.05 )g
(a) State the maximum value. (a) State the maximum value.
(b) State the minimum value. (b) State the minimum value.
(c) State the tolerance (c) State the tolerance

3. Consider the mass ( 32  .004) g 4. Consider the mass (25  .002) g

(a) State the maximum value. (a) State the maximum value.
(b) State the minimum value. (b) State the minimum value.
(c) State the tolerance (c) State the tolerance

5. A refrigerator has a maximum temperature of 37.5 F° and a minimum temperature of 32.7

+ 𝐭𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞
F°. State the tolerance in the form: 𝐧𝐨𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 -𝟎

6. (a) Find tolerance given that acceptable measurement lie between 4.2 and 4.4
(b) Express the range of measurement between 1.26 and 1.28 in the form of tolerance
expression(𝐴 ± 𝐵) g.
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7. The specifications for machining a piece of metal state that it must be 12 cm long, within a
0.01 cm tolerance.
(a) What is the longest the piece is allowed to be?
(b) What is the shortest piece is allowed to be?
(c) Using l to represent the length of the finished piece of metal, write an absolute
value inequality that states these conditions.
LINK BETWEEN THE LEAST UNIT OF MEASURE AND ABSOLUTE ERROR

Nothing that is measured can be 100% accurate. Whether you are using a ruler, a protractor, a
thermometer or a set of kitchen scales, there will always be an error of ± half the unit of
accuracy used. The least unit of measure is always given in any number that has been
approximated. Thus

𝟏
Absolute Error = 𝟐 × the least unit of measure
The least unit of measure is always given in any number that has been approximated. This
helps us to find the Absolute Error.

Least unit of measure Thus Absolute Error

Nearest 10000. 5000
Nearest 1000. 500
Nearest 100. 50
Nearest 10. 5
Nearest whole number. (1) 0.5
To 1 decimal place(nearest 0.1) 0.05
To 2 decimal places(nearest 0.01) 0.005

UPPER AND LOWER LIMITS (LIMITS OF MEASUREMENT)

The true value ± Maximum absolute error gives the limits of accuracy. Absolute error is
always expressed with the units of the quantity being measured.

Upper limit = Measured value + Maximum absolute error

Lower limit = Measured value - Maximum absolute error

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 Rounding and estimating: Upper and Lower Bounds (sig figs)
Value Rounded to Place value +/- Lower Upper Error Interval
Bound Bound

400 1 significant 100 ± 50 350 450 350 ≤ x < 450

figure
400 3 significant Whole ± 0.5 399.5 400.5 399.5 ≤ x < 400.5
figures

400 2 significant Tens ±5 350 450 350 ≤ x < 450

figures
40 2 significant Whole ± 0.5 39.5 40.5 39.5 ≤ x < 40.5
figures

4 2 significant Hundredths ± 3.995 4.005 3.995 ≤ x < 4.005

figures 0.005
4 1 significant Whole ± 0.5 3.5 4.5 3.5 ≤ x < 4.5
figure
0.4 1 significant Tenths ± 0.05 0.35 0.45 0.35 ≤ x < 0.45
figure

0.3 1 significant Tenths ± 0.05 0.25 0.35 0.25 ≤ x < 0.35

figure

30 2 significant Whole ± - 0.5 29.5 30.5 29.5 ≤ x < 30.5

figures
0.03 1 significant Hundredths ± 0.025 0.035 0.025 ≤ x < 0.035
figure 0.005

Finding the maximum value (upper limit) maximum value (lower limit)

Quantity given to the earest. Maximum value Maximum Value

(upper limit) (lower limit)
0.1 (to 1 decimal place) Given value – 0.05 Given value + 0.05
Whole Number Given value – 0.5 Given value + 0.5
Ten Given value – 5 Given value + 5
Hundred Given value – 50 Given value + 50
Thousand Given value – 500 Given value + 500

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 Rounding and estimating: Upper and Lower Bounds (Number of decimal places)

Number Number of Least unit of Absolute Limits of Limits in

“L” decimal measurement error accuracy Inequality form
places
25.3 1 0.1 0.05 25.3 ± 0.05 25.25 ≤ L < 25.35
10.00 2 0.01 0.005 10.00 ± 0.005 9.995 ≤ L < 10.005
12.124 3 0.001 0.0005 12.124 ± 0.0005 41.5 ≤ L < 42.5
188 0 1 0.5 188 ± 0.5 187.5 ≤ L < 188.5

Examples 1
Paul’s height is measured at 1.55 m to the nearest cm.

Solution
Paul’s height: 155 cm ± 0.5 cm

 The lower limit is:154.5 kg

 The upper limit is: 1555.5 kg Range: 154.5 ≤ H < 155.5

Example 2
An item is weighed as 45 kg to the nearest kg. Find the lower and upper limits
Solution
𝟏
The actual weight is: 45 ± 0.5 kg (absolute error =𝟐 × 𝟏 = 𝟎.𝟓 )

 The lower limit is: 44.5 kg

 The upper limit is: 45.5 kg

The range of possible weights is: 44.5 ≤ W < 45.5 Notice the use of inequality signs, 44.5 and
upwards is rounded up to 45 and any value below 45.5 is rounded down to 45.

Examples 3
Jane weighs 53 kg to the nearest kg. Write down the lower and upper limit of her weight.

Solution
Jane’s weight: 53 ± 0.5 kg

 The lower limit is: 52.5 kg

 The upper limit is: 52.5 kg Range: 52.5≤ W < 53.5

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 Example 4

A stick of wood is measured as 32 cm to the nearest centimetre.

Solution
Between what limits does the actual length of the stick lie?
Solution

31 32 33
LB UB
Since 32 is accurate to nearest centimetre which is a whole, then 32 lies between 31 and 33. The
lower bound is the average of 31 and 32 and the upper bound is the average of 32 and 33
𝟑𝟏 + 𝟑𝟐 𝟑𝟐 + 𝟑𝟑
𝑳𝑩 = 𝟐
= 𝟑𝟏.𝟓 and 𝑳𝑩 = 𝟐
= 𝟑𝟐.𝟓

When we round off the both the upper and lower limits to one decimal place we need to get 31.
When we round off the lower bound we get 32 and when we round of the upper bound we get 33
which is outside the limits. The lower limit is 31.5 cm as a halfway value is always rounded up.
The upper limit is 32.499999999… cm. In other words it can get as close to 32.5 cm as possible
but not be 32.5 cm. However 32.5 cm is the upper limit. So we say
31.5 cm ≤ length of stick < 32.5 cm.

Examples 5

An item is weighed as 45 kg to the nearest kg.

Solution
The actual weight is: 45 ± 0.5 kg The lower limit is: 44.5 kg The upper limit is: 45.5 kg
The range of possible weights is: 44.5 ≤ W < 45.5
Notice the use of inequality signs, 44.5 and upwards is rounded up to 45 and any value
below 45.5 is rounded down to 45.

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 QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS

1. These numbers are rounded to the nearest 10. Write the upper and lower bounds.
a. 80 b. 240kg c. 430
75 85 235kg 245kg 425 435

2. These numbers are rounded to the nearest 100. Write the upper and lower bounds.
a. 200 b. 700g c. K 2000
150 250 650g 750g K 1950 K 2050

3. These numbers are rounded to the nearest whole. Write the upper and lower bounds.
a. 3 b. 22 c. 100
2.5 3.5 21.5 22.5 99.5 100.5

4. These numbers are rounded to 1 decimal place. Write the upper and lower bounds.
a. 5.7 b. 0.4 c. 14.9
5.65 5.75 0.35 0.45 14.85 14.95

5. These numbers are rounded to 2 decimal places. Write the upper and lower bounds.
a. 0.65 b. 0.09 c. 1.07
0.645 0.655 0.085 0.095 1.065 1.075

6. These numbers are rounded to 1 significant figure. Write the upper and lower bounds.
a. 8 b. 20 c. 0.08
7.5 8.5 15 25 0.075 0.085

7. These numbers are rounded to 2 significant figures. Write the upper and lower
bounds.
a. 90 b. 340 c. 0.026
89.5 90.5 335 345 0.0255 0.0265

8. A mass is given as 5.8 kg to 1 decimal place. Using limits show the upper and lower
bounds 5.75 ≤ mass < 5.85

9. A length is given as 60 m to 1 significant figure. Using limits show the upper and lower
bounds. 55 ≤ length < 65

Exercise
1. A temperature T is given as 30o, correct to the nearest degree. Write down an inequality to
represent the range of all possible values for the temperature T.
2. A number N is given as 6.99 to 2 decimal places. Write down an inequality to represent the
range of all possible values for the number N.

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3. The length 𝑙, of a line is measured to be 8.1 cm, correct to 1 decimal place. Complete the
statement about.
4. A girl's height is given as 162 cm correct to the nearest centimetre. Represent by the means
of an inequality all possible values for the girl's height.
5. A temperature T is given as 28.6, correct to the 1 decimal place. Write down an inequality
to represent the range of all possible values for the temperature T.
6. A stick of wood is measured as 25 cm to the nearest centimetre. Between what limits does
the actual length of the stick lie?
3. The length of the line L is 10.00 cm correct to 2 decimal places. Find the limits of accuracy
in form of … ≤ 𝐿 < ...

Note that the limits of accuracy are always given to one more degree of
accuracy than the rounded value. For example 32 is the nearest integer and
the limits are to half a unit; 53.7 is to 1 decimal place and the limits are to 2
decimal places; 220 is to 3 significant figures and the limits are to 4
significant figures

Answers to the exercise

(1) 29.5 o ≤ T<3 0.5o (2) 6.985 ≤ N < 6.995 (3) 8.05 ≤ 𝒍 < 8.15
(4) 28.56 ≤T < 28.65 (5) 24.5 ≤ h < 25.5 (6) 9.995 ≤ 𝑚 < 10.005

EXERCISE
1. The following numbers have been rounded to two significant figures. Find the upper
and lower bounds for each value. (a) 78 (b) 0.91 (c) 0.011 (d) 6000

ANSWERS
1 (a) Upper Bound = 78.5, Lower Bound = 77.5
(b) Upper Bound =0.915, Lower Bound = 0.905
(c) Upper Bound = 0.0115, Lower Bound = 0.0105
(d) Upper Bound = 6050, Lower Bound = 5950

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2. The following numbers have been rounded to two decimal places. Find the upper
and lower bounds for each value. (a) 23.55 (b) 0.82

ANSWERS
(a) Upper Bound = 23.555, Lower Bound = 23.545

(b) Upper Bound = 0.825, Lower Bound = 0.815

Exercise A

1. Given that the following values have been rounded to 1 d.p., write down an inequality for each to show the range
of possible actual values.

(a) m = 7.6 (b) n = 15.2 (c) p= 37.1 (d) g = 109.9 (e) r= 70.0

(f) 7.3 m (1 decimal place) (f) 25.8 kg (1 decimal place) (g) 3.4 (1 d )

2. Given that the following values have been truncated to 2 d.p, write down an inequality for each to show the range
of possible actual values. (a) s = 6.57 (b) t= 25.71 (c) u = 33.47 (d) v = 99.99 (e ) w= 51.00

3. Alasdair is canoeing down a river and says that he has travelled 10 km to the nearest 100 m. Write down the
interval within which the actual distance in km, d, lies. Give your answer as an inequality.

5. Write down the limits of accuracy for each of the following values which are rounded to the given degree of
accuracy.

(a) 4.23 mm (2 decimal places) (b) 2.19 kg (2 dp) (c) 12.67 min (2 p)

(d) 7.04 kg (2 decimal places) (e) 12.0 s (1 decimal place) (f) 7.00 m (2 decimal places)

6. Write down the limits of accuracy for each of the following values which are rounded to the given degree of
accuracy. (a) 7.3 m (1 decimal place) (b) 25.8 kg (1 decimal place) (c) 3.4 (1 decimal place)

7. Write down the limits of accuracy for each of the following values which are rounded to the given degree of
accuracy (a) 4.23 mm (2 decimal places) (b) 2.19 kg (2 decimal places) (c) 12.67 min (2 decimal places) (d) 7.04
kg (2 decimal places) (e) 12.0 s (1 decimal place) (f) 7.00 m (2 decimal places)

8. Jane weighs 53 kg to the nearest kg. Write down the lower and upper limit of her weight.

9. A number p is given as 8.7 to 1 d.p. Find (a) the absolute error (b) the limits of accuracy
10 A car is 2.6 m long, measured correct to 1 decimal place

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 QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS

These numbers have been rounded. Using limits show the upper and lower bounds in
inequality form.
a. 60 (nearest 10) b. 300 (nearest 100)
c. 42 (nearest whole) d. 17.5 (1 decimal place)
e. 0.9 (nearest 1/10) f. 5.39 (2 decimal places)
g. 40 (1 significant figure) h. 64 (2 significant figures)
i. 800 (2 significant figures) j. 200 (3 significant figures)

ANSWERS
a. 55 ≤ n < 65 b. 250 ≤ n < 350
c. 41.5 ≤ n < 42.5 d. 17.45 ≤ n < 17.55
e. 0.85 ≤ n < 0.95 f. 5.385 ≤ n < 5.395
g. 35 ≤ n < 45 h. 63.5 ≤ n < 64.5
i. 795 ≤ n < 805 j. 199.5 ≤ n < 200.5

INACCURACY IN A MEASUREMENT
The inaccuracy in a measurement is normally specified by stating an error in the
measurement. Errors made are not usually mistakes but are rather the uncertainty in the
measurement due to factors such as
(a) the type and construction of the measuring device,
(b) the calibration of its scale,
(c) reading errors of the experimenter, and
(d) the number of measurements
Every measurement has an error. Errors are deviations (differences) between the true value
and a measurement. They can be random or systematic. Systematic error usually refers to
some flaw in an instrument or procedure which will affect the readings consistently (e.g. the
end of a meter stick is worn down). Repeating the measurements and averaging the results
will reduce random errors but will obviously not affect systematic errors if the same
instruments and methods are used repeatedly.

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 EXPRESSION OF ERRORS
Errors are expressed in two forms,
(a) Absolute error and
(b) Relative error
Absolute and relative errors are two types of error with which every experimental
scientist should be familiar. The differences are important
ABSOLUTE ERROR
The absolute error is the difference between the actual or true value and the measured
value, regardless the sign:
Absolute Error = |true value − rounded value|

Absolute error is always expressed with the units of the quantity being measured

EXAMPLE
1. Mr. Musondela estimated that the amount of donations collected on Charity Day would be
K200 000. The actual donations collected on that day was k 198 070. Find the absolute error
of Mr. Musondela estimation.

Solution:
The required absolute error= K (200 000- 198 070)
= K 1930

2. RELATIVE ERROR

Relative error is the ratio of absolute error to the true value. Relative error can be expressed as
either a fraction of the measured quantity or as a percentage, with the latter most common. It
does not have units.

|𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 - 𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆| 𝐀𝐛𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝐄𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐫

Relative Error = =
𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝐭𝐫𝐮𝐞 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞

Relative error can be expressed as either a fraction of the measured quantity or as a percentage,
with the latter most common. It does not have units. When Relative error is expressed as
percentage, it is called percentage error.

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Examples 1.
Find the relative error of 5.5 correct to 1 decimal place.

Solution
𝐀𝐛𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝐞𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐫
Relative error = 𝐓𝐫𝐮𝐞 𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭

Absolute error = 0.05 and true measurement is 5.5

0.05 5 1
Relative error = = =
5.5 550 110

Examples 2
The mass of the boy is 25.3 kg measured correct to 1 decimal place.
(a) Calculate the relative error as a fraction in the lowest term
(b) Find the largest possible mass

Solution
𝐀𝐛𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝐞𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐫
(a) Relative error = 𝐓𝐫𝐮𝐞 𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭

Absolute error = 0.05 and true measurement is 25.3

0.05 5 1
Relative error = 25.3 = 253 = 506

(b) the largest possible mass = 25.3 + 0.05 = 23.35

Examples 3
The length of the line L is 10.00 cm correct to 2 decimal places. Find the
(a) relative as a fraction in the lowest term.
(b ) limits of accuracy in form of … ≤ 𝐿 < ...

Solution
𝐀𝐛𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝐞𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐫
(a) Relative error = 𝐓𝐫𝐮𝐞 𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭

Absolute error = 0.005 and true measurement is 10.00

0.005 5 1
Relative error = 10.00 = 10000 = 2000

(a) limits in inequality form … ≤ 𝐿 < ...is 9.995 ≤ 𝑚 < 10.005

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Examples 4
4. Consider the length, L = 24.2 ± 0.5 cm
(a) Find the relative
(b) Find the percentage error
Solutions
𝐀𝐛𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝐄𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐫 𝐀𝐛𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝐄𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐫
(a) Relative Error = 𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 (b) PA = × 100%
𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
𝟎.𝟓 𝟎.𝟓
= 𝟐𝟒.𝟐 = 𝟐𝟒.𝟐 × 100%

=
5
= 0.0207 % (3sf)
242

NB: Note that 0.5 is the absolute error. The tolerance in this case is 2 × 0.5 = 1

PERCENTAGE ERROR

Percentage error is the ratio of absolute error to the true value expressed as a
percentage.
In other words Percentage error is relative error expressed as a percentage so
Percentage error = relative error × 100%
|𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 - 𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆|
Percentage error = 𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
× 100 %
𝐀𝐛𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝐄𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐫
Percentage error = 𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%

Example 1
The length is 8 cm. john recorded it as 8.2 cm. Find the percentage error

Solution Solution
8.2 - 8
Percentage error = 8 × 100%
0.2
= 8 × 100%

= 2.5%

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Example 2
In a certain car, the speed of reads 72 km/h but the actual speed is 70 km/h. calculate the
percentage error in its speed.

Solution
72 - 70
Percentage error = 70 × 100%
2
= 70 × 100%

= 2.86% (3sf)

Example 3
James calculated the area of a square. He used 7.2 cm when he should have used 2.7
cm for the length of a side. Find the % error in his answer.

Solution
If length = 2.7, the area = 2.7² = 7.29
If length = 7.2, the area = 7.2² = 51.84
51.84 - 7.29
Percentage error = 7.29 × 100%

= 610%

Example 4
The length of the line L is 10.00 cm correct to 2 decimal places. Find the percentage
error.

Solution
𝐀𝐛𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝐞𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐫
Percentage error = 𝐓𝐫𝐮𝐞 𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 × 100%
0.005
= 10.00 × 100% Absolute error = 0.005 and
1 true measurement is 10.00
= 2000 × 100%

= 0.05 %

Example 5

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The true value of the length or a rectangle is 5.5m. If this is recorded as 5m,
(a) find the absolute error
(b) The relative error
(c) The percentage error

Solutions.
True value is 5.5m recorded value is 5m.

(a) Absolute error =[recorded value –true value] =[5-5.5] m =[-0.5]= 0.5m.
𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 0.5𝑚
(b) Relative error= 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
=5.5𝑚 =0.09

(c) The percentage error = relative error × 100% = 0.09 × 100% = 9%

Example 6
The crowd at a tennis tournament was 14 869, but in the newspaper it was reported as
15 000.
(a) Find the Absolute Error
(b) Find the Percentage errors in this approximation
Solutions

(a) Absolute Error = |15 000 − 14 869| |15 000 ‒ 14 869|

(b) PA = 15 000
× 100%
= 131 131
= 15 000 × 100%

= 0.881% (3sf)

Example 7
Prisca and chich measures the length of the string as 9 and 10 cm respectively. Given that the
actual length of the string was 9.4 cm, find
(a) the absolute error in prisca’s measurement
(b) Percentage errors in chichi’s measurement.
Solution

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 (a) Absolute Error = |9 – 9.4| |10 – 9.4|
(b) PA = 9.4 × 100%
= | –0.4| 0.6
= 9.4 × 100%
= 0.4
= 0.0638 % (3sf)

EXERCISE
1. Complete the following table.
absolute Relative Percentage
error error error
(a) 10 kg (correct to the nearest kg)
(b) 4.0 min(correct to the nearest 0.1 min)
(c) 12.5 cm (correct to the nearest 0.5 cm)

2. The length of a pen is measured to be 15.5 cm, correct to the nearest 0.1 cm.
(a) Find the maximum absolute error,
(b) Find the relative error.
3. The lifetime of a light bulb is measured to be 2000 hours, correct to the nearest 5 hours.
(a) Find the maximum absolute error,
(b) Find the relative error,
(c) The percentage error of the lifetime of the light bulb.
DISCRETE

o These are quantities which can be counted, for example: people attending a football
match, shoe size, number of CD’s in a collection.

o Discrete quantities are exact. • Discrete data that can only take certain values
within a given range

Example

500 people, to the nearest 100, attended the conference. Actual number of people
attending between: 450 and 549. Both figures, to the nearest 100, are 500.

With discrete quantities it is possible to give exact lower and upper limits.

Example 1

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A coach is carrying 50 people, to the nearest 10. Find the lower bound is 45, and the upper
bound is 54

Solution
Lower bound is 45, and the upper bound is 54. The error interval of 50 cars to the
nearest 10 cars could be written as 45 ≤ c ≤ 54 or 45 ≤ c < 55.

Example 2

Explain why the error interval of 400 cars to the nearest 50 cars could be written as 375 ≤ c ≤
424 or 375 ≤ c < 425.

Explanation
Cars are discrete data so 424 is the maximum number of cars. However, there is no
possible number the value can take between 424 and 425, so < 425 is also
appropriate.

Example 3

The attendance at a football match was 67 500, correct to the nearest hundred.
(i) What was the highest possible attendance?
(ii) What was the lowest possible attendance?

Solution
1
People are countable so this is discrete data. Absolute error = 2
× 100 = 50

(i) The maximum number = 67 500+(50-1)=6749

(i) The minimum number = 67 500 - 50=67450
Exercise
1. Two performances of a show are each attended by 175 people, to the nearest 5. Work out
the maximum possible difference between the numbers of people attending.

2. There are 14 700 (to the nearest hundred) spectators at a football match.
(i) What is the least possible number of spectators?

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(ii) What is the maximum number of spectators?
3. The number of people on a bus is given as 50, correct to the nearest 10. What is the lowest
and highest possible number of people on the bus?

CONTINUOUS

o These are quantities which are measured and are not exact, for example: the height
of a building, the weight of a person.
o The Lower Limit (Lower Bound) and the Upper Limit (Upper Bound) are used to
describe the range of values for a continuous measurement.
o In general, if a measurement is accurate to some given amount, then the true value
lies within a maximum of a half of a unit of that amount.

•For continuous data: -data that can take any value within a given range
•E.g. The length of a stick of wood is 32 cm, measured to the nearest centimetre. The
lower bound is 31.5 cm, and the upper bound is 32.5 cm
•Due to a mathematical peculiarity the upper bound is 32.5 cm rather than 32.49 cm
•The lower and upper bounds are sometimes known as the limits of accuracy and the
range between them is the error interval
•E.g. the error interval for the 32 cm stick is as follows;
31.5 cm ≤ length of stick <32.5 cm
•Note the use of the strict inequality (<) for the upper bound
COMBINATIONS TO GIVE MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM
•The following table shows the combinations to give minimum and maximum values for all
four operations of two numbers, 𝑎and 𝑏:
•𝑎 and 𝑏 lie within limits 𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒏 ≤ 𝒂 < 𝒎𝒂𝒙 and 𝒃𝒎𝒊𝒏 ≤ 𝒃 < 𝒃𝒎𝒂𝒙
The following table shows the combinations to give minimum and maximum values for all
four operations of two numbers, 𝑎and 𝑏:

Operation Minimum Maximum

Addition(𝑎+𝑏) 𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒏 + 𝒃𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒎𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃𝒎𝒂𝒙

Subtraction (𝑎−𝑏) 𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒏 ‒ 𝒃𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒎𝒂𝒙 ‒ 𝒃𝒎𝒊𝒏

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 Multiplication (𝑎×𝑏) 𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒏 × 𝒃𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒎𝒂𝒙 × 𝒃𝒎𝒂𝒙

Division (𝑎÷𝑏) 𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒏 ÷ 𝒃𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒎𝒂𝒙 ÷ 𝒃𝒎𝒊𝒏

When finding upper and lower bounds using formulae the calculations on the right should be
used.

MULTIPLICATION
Example 1
A rectangle measures 4 cm by 3 cm, measurements are correct to the nearest cm. What
are the greatest and least possible values for the area of the rectangle?

Solution
Length = 4 ± 0.5 ∴ Greatest Length = 4.5 and Least Length = 3.5 cm
Width = 3 ± 0.5 ∴ Greatest Width = 3.5 and Least Width = 2.5 cm
Greatest Area = Greatest Length × Greatest Width = 4.5 × 3.5 = 15.75 cm²
Least Area = Least Length × Least Width = 3.5 × 2.5 = 8.75 cm²

Example 2
A rectangle has sides given as 6 cm by 15 cm, to the nearest centimeter. Calculate the
limits of accuracy of the area of the rectangle

Solution
Upper bound: 6.5×15.5=100.75𝑐𝑚2
Lower Bound: 5.5×14.5=79.75𝑐𝑚2
79.75𝑐𝑚2 ≤area <100.75 𝑐𝑚2

Example 3

The radius of a circle is 6.5cm to one decimal place.

(a) Calculate the minimum perimeter of the circle.

(b) Calculate the maximum area of the circle.

Solution
(a) Lower Bound radius 6.45cm
Circumference = 2 x π x 6.45cm = 40.53cm ∴ Minimum
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(draft)
(b) Maximum radius = 6.55cm ∴ Maximum Area = π x 6.55² = 134.78cm²
Example 4
6 Books are packed into boxes for delivery. The total weight of a box should not
exceed 30 kg. A book weighs 2.7 kg, to the nearest 0.1 kg. What is the maximum
number of books that can be packed in a box?

Solution
UB of weight of a book = 2.7 + 0.05 = 2.75kg
30 ÷ 2.75 = 10 books (nearest whole book)
(10 x 2.75kg = 27.5kg, definitely less than 30kg,
11 x 2.75kg = 30.25kg, 11 books COULD weigh more than 30kg)

Example 5
5 A bag of potatoes weighs 5.0 kg to the nearest 100g.
(a) Find the upper bound of the weight of 100 bags of potatoes.
(b) 1.5 kg of potatoes to the nearest 100 g are taken from a bag. What is the lower
bound of the weight of potatoes left in the bag?

Solution
(a) UB of weight = 5.0 kg + 0.05kg = 5.05kg
∴ upper bound of the weight of 100 bags= 5.05 x 100 = 505 kg
(b) LB of weight = 5.0 kg -0.05kg = 4.95kg
UB of weight of potatoes removed = 1.5 + 0.05 = 1.55
LB of weight = LB of starting weight - UB of weight of potatoes removed
= 4.95- 1.55
= 3.4 kg

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EXERCISE
1. Anthony measured the length and width of a rectangle. He measured the length to
be 18cm correct to the nearest centimetre. He measured the width to be 10cm correct to
the nearest 10 centimetres.
Calculate the lower bound for the area of this rectangle.
2. The length and the width of a book are measured to be 310 mm and 192
mm respectively, correct to the nearest 2 mm.
(a) Find the lower limit and the upper limit of the actual length of the book.
(b) Find the lower limit and the upper limit of the actual width of the book.
(c) Find the maximum and the minimum area of the book in cm2.
3. The length of a side of a square is measured to be 8.47 cm, correct to the nearest
0.01 cm. Find
(a) the lower limit of the perimeter,
(b) the lower limit of the area of the square, correct to 2 significant figures.
4. The length and the width of a swimming pool are 50 m and 10 m respectively. Both
measurements are correct to the nearest 0.05 m.
(a) Find the maximum length and the maximum width of the swimming pool in m.
(b) (i) Find the maximum perimeter of the swimming pool in m.
(ii) Find the maximum area of the swimming pool in 𝑚2, correct to 5
significant figures.

5. The length of a rectangle is 30 cm, correct to 2 significant figures. The width of a

rectangle is 18 cm, correct to 2 significant figures.
(a) Write down the upper bound of the width
(b) Calculate the upper bound for the area of the rectangle
6. The length of the rectangle is 35 cm correct to the nearest cm.
The width of the rectangle is 26 cm correct to the nearest cm.
Calculate the upper bound for the area of the rectangle

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7 . A rectangular photograph measures 23.3 cm by 19.7 cm, each correct to 1 decimal
place.
(a) Calculate the lower bound for the perimeter,
(b) Calculate the lower bound for the area
8. The rectangle has length 12 cm correct to the nearest cm, and width 4.5 cm correct
to 1 decimal place.
(a) Find the minimum perimeter of the rectangle.
(b) Find the maximum area of the rectangle.
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM POSSIBLE VALUES UNDER ADDITION

Operation Minimum Maximum

Addition(𝑎+𝑏) 𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒏 + 𝒃𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒎𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃𝒎𝒂𝒙
Example 1
John has K 20 to the nearest Kwacha and Katy has K 40 to the nearest Kwacha. What
are the greatest and least possible amounts of money that John and Katy have
altogether?
Solution
To the nearest K 1, means a possible error of 50 ngwee (k 0.50
John has K 20 ± 0.5 ∴ Greatest amount = K 20.50 Least amount = K 19.50
Katy has K 40 ± 0.5 ∴ Greatest amount = K 40.50 Least amount = K 39.50
Together Greatest total = K 20.50 + K 40.50 = K 61
Least total = K 19.50 + K 39.50 = K 59
Example 2
Henry has K 50 to the nearest Kwacha. He spends K 20 to the nearest Kwacha. What
is the greatest and least possible amounts of money does he have left?

Solution
Greatest amount to start= K 50.50 . Least amount to start = K 49.50
Greatest amount spent= K 20.50 Least amount spent = K 19.50
Greatest amount left = K 50.50 + K 19.50 = K 31
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Least amount left = K 49.50 - K 20.50 = K 29.50
Example 3
The two sides of the rectangle were measured to the nearest mm.
7.9 cm

4.6 cm

(a) Find the upper and lower bounds of each measurement

(b) Find the least and greatest possible values of the perimeter.

Solution
(a) The upper and lower bounds for the length 7.85 ≤ a < 7.95
The upper and lower bounds for the width 4.55 ≤ b < 4.65
(b) Smallest perimeter: 2 x 7.85 + 2 x 4.55 = 24.8 cm
Greatest perimeter: 2 x 7.95 + 2 x 4 .65= 25.2 cm

Example 4
There are people queuing at two entrances, A and B, of a concert hall. The number of
people queuing at entrance A is 150 to the nearest 10. The number of people queuing at
entrance B is 300 to the nearest l00.
(a) Calculate the largest possible total of the number of people queuing at entrances A
and B.
(b) Calculate the smallest possible difference between the number of people queuing at
entrances A and B.

Solution
UB LB
155 145
B 350 250
Largest total = 155 + 350 = 505
Smallest difference = 250- 155= 95
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Example 5
Calculate the upper and lower bounds for: 17.8 - 4.2 if each of the numbers is given to
1 d.p.
Solution
17.8 lies in the range: 17.75≤ x < 17.85
4.2 lies in the range: 4.15≤ y < 4.25
The lower bound (smallest value) of x - y is obtained when we use the smallest value
for x and the greatest for y, so: minimum value: 17.75 4.25= 13.5
The upper bound (greatest value) of x+ y is obtained when we use the greatest value
for x and the smallest for y, so: maximum value: 17.85 +4.15=13.7
Example 6
The attendance at a football stadium on two Saturdays was 43000 correct to 2
significant figures and 40000 correct to 1 significant figure. What is the minimum
number of people that could have attended in total?
Solution
Writing the upper and lower bounds for each number will score marks in a test
Using correct bounds and correct method for the question will score marks
The correct answer will score marks
43000 (2sf) 40000 (1sf)
42500 43500 35000 45000

Minimum number = 42500 + 35000 = 77500

EXERCISE

1. The length of the pitch is 115 metres, measured to the nearest 5 metres. Find upper
bound for the perimeter of the pitch
2. The sides of a rectangular plot of land are measured correct to the nearest metre. The
measurements are given as 20 m by 3 m.
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(i) Write down the upper bound of the length of the plot of land.
(ii) Find the least possible perimeter of the plot
3. A field is in the shape of a rectangle. The length of the field is 340 m, to the nearest
metre. The width of the field is 117 m, to the nearest metre.
Calculate the upper bound for the perimeter of the field
4. The length and width of a rectangle are measured to be 5.5 cm and 3.5 cm
respectively, correct to 2 significant figures.
Find the maximum and minimum perimeter of the rectangle
5. A field is in the shape of a rectangle. The length of the field is 340 m, to the nearest
metre. The width of the field is 117 m, to the nearest metre. Calculate the upper bound
for the perimeter of the field.
6. A field is in the shape of a rectangle. The width of the field is 28 metres, measured
to the nearest metre. The length of the field is 145 metres, measured to the nearest 5
metres.
(a) Work out the upper bound of the width of the field.
(b) Work out the upper bound for the perimeter of the field.
7. The length and width of a rectangle are 50 cm and 15 cm respectively and each
measurement is correct to the nearest centimetre.
(a) Write down the upper bound of the length
(b) Find the least possible perimeter of the rectangle
8. The length, l, is measured as 3 cm to the nearest millimeter.
(a) Find the upper and lower bounds
(b) Show this information can be written using inequality signs
MORE EXAMPLES
Example 1
A rectangle measures 4 cm by 3 cm, all measurements are correct to the nearest cm.
Find
a) The least and greatest perimeter.

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b) The least and greatest area.
c) The least and greatest diagonal length

Solution

Error = ± 0.5 cm Greatest length = 4.5 cm Least length = 3.5 cm

Greatest width = 3.5 cm Least width = 2.5 cm
a. Least perimeter = 2 × (least length + least width)
= 2(3.5 + 2.5)
= 12 cm
Greatest perimeter = 2(greatest length + greatest width)
= 2(4.5 + 3.5)
= 16 cm
b. Least area = least length × least width
= 3.5 × 2.5
= 8.75 cm²
Greatest area = greatest length × greatest width
= 4.5 × 3.5
= 15.75 cm²

c.
diagonal 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ2 + 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ2

Least diagonal = 3.52 + 2.52 = 4. 3cm

Greatest diagonal = 4.52 + 3.52 = 5.7 cm

Example 2
The length of a square is given as 10cm correct to the nearest centimeter,
(a) Calculate the lower bound length.
(b) Calculate The upper bound length.
(c) Calculate the smallest possible perimeter.
(d) Calculate the largest possible perimeter.
(e) Calculate the smallest possible area.
(f) Calculate the largest possible area.
Solutions
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 1
The length of a square is 10cm. Error = 2 × 1 = 0.5cm

a) The lower bound length = actual length +error =10cm ‒ 0.5cm =9.5cm

(b) The upper bound length = actual length + error = 10cm + 0.5cm = 10.5cm

Perimeter of a square = 4 × length

(c)( The smallest possible perimeter = 4 × lower breadth length = 4 × 9.5cm = 38cm
d) Largest possible perimeter = 4 × upper bound length = 4 × 10.5cm = 42cm

Area of a square = L2
(e) ∴ the smallest possible area = (lower bound length)2 = (9.5cm)2 = 90.25cm2
(f) Largest possible area = (upper bound length)2 = (10.5cm)2 = 110.25cm2

Exercise
Chimuka travels for 4 hours at an average speed of 50 km/ hour. The time is given to
the nearest hour. The speed is given to the nearest 10 kilometres per hour.
(a) What is the maximum possible distance Chimuka travels?
(b) What is the minimum possible distance Chimuka travels?
DIVISION

Operation Minimum Maximum

Division (𝑎÷𝑏) 𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒏 ÷ 𝒃𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒎𝒂𝒙 ÷ 𝒃𝒎𝒊𝒏

Example 1
1. A car is driving a distance of 160 km correct to the nearest 10 miles. The car is
travelling for 4 hours correct to the nearest hour. Calculate the maximum speed of the
car.

Solution

Distance: Upper Bound = 165 km Lower Bound = 155 km

Time: Upper Bound = 4.5 hours Lower Bound = 3.5 hours

Speed = Distance ÷ Time

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 With division, we get the largest answer when we divide the biggest number by the
smallest number. Max speed is the Greatest distance in the Shortest Time

Maximum speed = 165 ÷ 3.5 = 47.1 km/h

Example 2.
1. Chloe drives 5 km (correct to the nearest km) to work, in 15 minutes (correct to the
nearest minute).Find the least possible average speed.

Solution

Distance: Upper Bound = 5.5 km Lower Bound = 4.5 km

Time: Upper Bound = 14.5 hours Lower Bound = 15.5 hours

Speed = Distance ÷ Time

With division, we get the least answer when we divide the smaller number by the
biggest number. Min speed is the Shortest distance in the Greatest Time

Maximum speed = (4.5 ÷ 15.5) × 60 = 17.4 km/h

Example 3.
A sprinter covers a 110 m distance correct to 2 significant figures in 12.43 seconds.
Find the range of values for his average speed.

Solution
Assume that 110 m is accurate to 2 significant figures, i.e. to the nearest 10
1
 Absolute error = 2
× 10 = 5m

 Greatest distance = 115 m and Least distance = 105 m

Assume 12.43 s is accurate to 2 d.p., i.e. to the nearest 0.01
1
Absolute Error = 2 × 0.01 = 0.005 s Greatest time = 12.435 s and Least time = 2.425 s
Greatest distance 115
Greatest average speed = Least time
= 12.425 = 9.256 m/s

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 105

Least average speed = = 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
= 12.435 = 8.444 m/s

The average speed ranges from 8.444 m/s to 9.256 m/s

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Example 4 .
A car is driven a distance of 30km, measured to the nearest km, in 20 minutes,
measured to the nearest min. between what limits will the average speed lie?

Ans:
30km to the nearest km means that 29.5km ≤ distance ≤ 30.5km
20min to the nearest min means that 19.5min ≤ time ≤ 20.5min
greatest distance 30.5𝑘𝑚
Greatest average speed= least time
=19.5𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1.56 km/min = 94𝑘𝑚/ℎ
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 29.5𝑘𝑚
Least possible speed = 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡
= 20.5𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1.44km/min = 86km/h

Example 4
A floor tile measures 15 cm to the nearest cm. A floor is 5m long to the nearest m.
How many floor tile will be needed to fill the length of the floor?
Solution
Tiles: length = 15 ± 0.5 cm Greatest length = 15.5 cm Least length = 14.5 cm
Floor: length = 5 ± 0.5 m
Greatest length = 5.5 m Least length = 4.5 m
Greatest length = 550 cm Least length = 450 cm
Number of tiles = length of floor ÷ length of tile
Greatest number of tiles = greatest floor length ÷ least tile length
= 550 ÷ 14.5
= 37.9
Least number of tiles = least floor length ÷ greatest tile length
= 450 ÷ 15.5
= 29
In order to cover the length of the floor, 38 tiles would be needed.
Example
Note: It is5possible that only 29 tiles would be needed.
Erik ran the 100m in 11.25 sec . Between what limits does T lie?

We are not told how accurate this measurement is. Since it is given to the second decimal place
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(hundredths), assume it is accurate to the nearest hundredth of (draft)
a second.
Hundredth of a second = 0.01 Error = ½ × 0.01 = 0.005

Erik’s time: 11.25 ± 0.005 Range: 11.245 ≤ T < 11.255

Example 6
Erik’s time is now given as 11.3 sec. This time the measurement is to the nearest tenth
of a second

solution

Tenth of a second = 0.1 Error = ½ × 0.1 = 0.05

Erik’s time: 11.3 ± 0.05 Range: 11.25 ≤ T < 11.35

Example 7
Sara’s height is given as 1.8m to the nearest tenth of a metre. Find the range in which
Sara’s height can be.

Solution

Tenth of a metre = 10 cm , Error = ½ × 10 cm = 5 cm

Sara’s height: 180 ± 5 cm

Range: 175 ≤ W < 185.

Example 8
Find the absolute error, the upper limit and the lower limit for 8h
Solution
1
Least unit of measurement = 1h Absolute error = 2 × 1ℎ = 0.5ℎ

 Upper limit = 8 + 0.5 = 8.5ℎ and Lower limit = 8 ‒ 0.5 = 7.5ℎ

Find the limits between which the areas of the following shapes must lie.
(a) A square of side 3cm
(b) A right-angled triangle with hypotenuse 5m and the other sides 3m and 4m long
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Solution
(a). least unit of measurement = 1cm b). least unit of measurement = 1m Absolute error =
Absolute error = 0.5 0.5
Upper limit is 3 + 0.5 = 3.5𝑐𝑚 and Upper limit for the height=4+0.5=4.5m
the Lower limit is 3 - 0.5 = 2.5𝑐𝑚 Lower limit for the height= 4-0.5=3.5m
 Maximum area = (3.5 × 3.5)𝑐𝑚 Upper limit for the base= 3+0.5=3.5m

= 12.25𝑐𝑚
2 Lower limit for the base= 3-0.5= 2.5m
1
 Minimum area = (2.5 × 2.5)𝑐𝑚 Area of a triangle = 2 × 𝑏 × h
2 1 15.5
= 6.25𝑐𝑚 Therefore, maximum area = 2 × 4.5 × 3.5 = 2
2
Therefore, the limits are 6.25𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2
= 7.875𝑚
2
12.25𝑐𝑚 1 1
Minimum area = 2 × 3.5 × 2.5 = 2 × 8.75 = 4.375
2
𝑚
2 2
The limits are 4.375𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 7.875𝑚

Exercise

1. The weight of a bag of potatoes is 25 kg, correct to the nearest kg.

(a) Write down the smallest possible weight of the bag of potatoes.
(b) Write down the largest possible weight of the bag of potatoes.
2. The length of a line is 63 centimetres, correct to the nearest centimetre.
(a) Write down the least possible length of the line.
(b) Write down the greatest possible length of the line.
3. Steve measured the length and the width of a rectangle.
He measured the length to be 645 mm correct to the nearest 5 mm.
He measured the width to be 400 mm correct to the nearest 5 mm.
Calculate the lower bound for the area of this rectangle.
Give your answer correct to 3 significant figures.
4. The capacity of a coffee pot is measured to be 1500 mL, correct to the nearest 5 mL.
The capacity of a coffee mug is measured to be 230 mL, correct to the nearest 0.5 mL.
(a)For these two measured values, find
(i)t he maximum absolute errors,
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(ii) the relative errors.
(b)From the results obtained in (a)(ii), determine which measured value is more
accurate.
7. The distance between 2 cities as measured from a map is 8500 km, correct to the
nearest 500 km. Find
(a) the maximum absolute error,
(b) the relative error,
(c) the percentage error of the measured value.
(Give your answers correct to 2 significant figures if necessary.)

8 . For each of the following pairs of actual values and approximations, find the
absolute error of the approximation.

(a) Actual value = 25, approximation = 23

(b) Actual value = 34.6, approximation = 35

(c) Actual value = 0.73, approximation = 1

2. Assume that the actual height of a table is 34.26 cm. Find the absolute error when the
measurement is taken correct to

(a) the nearest cm,

(b) 3 significant figures.

EXERCISE

ERROR INTERVAL
1. The length, L cm, of a line is measured as 13 cm correct to the nearest centimetre.
Complete the following statement to show the range of possible values of L
Answer............. ≤L < ............................
2. Paul won a race with a time of 71.3 seconds. This time, t, is to the nearest tenth of a
second. Complete the error interval due to rounding.
Answer _________ ⩽ t < _________
3. Jim rounds a number, x, to one decimal place. The result is 7.2 Write down the error
interval for x. …....................................................
4. The distance travelled by an object was 230 m, correct to the nearest 10 m.
The time taken was 7 seconds, correct to the nearest second.
(a) Complete the statements in the answer space.
...............m ≤ distance <............ m. …...................s ≤ time <............... s
(b) What was the least possible average speed for the journey?
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 ............................................... m/s
5. The speed v of a train is 68 km/h, correct to the nearest km/h. Write down an inequality to
show the error interval for v . ..........................................m/s
6. The distance between Walvis Bay and Buite pos is 700 km, correct to the nearest 50 km.
Complete the inequality in the answer space.

Answer: ………. km ≤ distance < ……….km

Revision questions

1. If x = 4.7 and y= 10.9 correct to 1 decimal place, calculate the maximum value of. 𝑥
/𝑦
2. The length of each of Mary’s paces is 0.55m. She walks at a constant speed of 2
paces per second. Calculate the distance, in kilometres, that she walks in one hour the
answer space. (b) What was the least possible average speed for the journey?

3. On a certain day, the exchange rate between Zambian (K) and American dollars
(US$) is US $1 = K 7.7807. Find the absolute error when rounding off the number
7.7807 correct to (a) 3 significant figures, (b) 1 decimal place.
4. (a) Find the value of 12.41 + 3.40 – 0.871 and give the answer correct to 3 significant
figures.
(b) Find the absolute error of the result in (a).
5. For each of the following scale intervals of the measuring tools, find the
maximum absolute error of the measurement.

(a) 1 cm (b) 0.2 kg(c) 0.5 second

6. Complete the following table. (Give your answers correct to 3 significant figures if
necessary.)

Maximum Relative Percentage

Measured value absolute error error error
168 cm(cor. to the nearest cm)
36 kg (cor. to 2 sig. fig.)
5840 m3 (cor. to 3 sig. fig.)

7. For each of the following measured values and degrees of accuracy, find the
maximum absolute error and the limits between which the actual value lies.
(a) 4.0 cm (correct to the nearest 0.5 cm) (b) 1470 m (correct to 3 sig. fig.)

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8. For each of the following measured values and degrees of accuracy, find the
maximum absolute error and the limits between which the actual value lies.
(a) 23.1 mL (correct to the nearest 0.1 mL)
(b) 18.43 kg (correct to 4 sig. fig.)
9. The measured height of the Bride’s Pool waterfall in Tai Po is 15 m, correct to the
nearest m. Find the relative error.
10. May finishes a 400 m race in 46 s, with a maximum absolute error of 0.2 s. Find
the relative error of the measured time.
11. Find the range of possible values for a length of cable measuring 24.3 m to the
nearest 10 cm. Give the answer as an inequality.
12. The weight of a mobile phone is measured to be 145.0 g, correct to the nearest 0.5
g. Find
(a) the maximum absolute error,
(b) the relative error,
(c) the percentage error, correct to 3 significant figures.
13. The weight of a hotdog is 67 g, correct to the nearest g. Find the percentage error
of the weight correct to 2 significant figures.
14. John bought some food and beverages in a supermarket. He estimated the bill to
be K150. If the actual amount is K153.8, find the percentage error of John’s
estimate. (Give your answer correct to 3 significant figures.)
15. The wind speed is measured to be 4 m/s with a maximum absolute error of 0.5
m/s. Find the percentage error of the measured value of the wind speed.
16. The actual length of a rod is 35 cm. If the length of the rod measured by Mildred
is 34.9 cm, find
(a) the absolute error,
(b) the relative error,
(c) the percentage error, correct to 3 significant figures.
17. During a lung function test, the total lung capacity of Tom is measured to be 3.8
L. If the actual total lung capacity of Tom is 3.83 L,
(a) Find the absolute error and
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(b) Find the percentage error of the measurement.
18. Tommy estimated that the price of a watch is K13 000. It is known that the actual price
of the watch is K12 845. Find
(a) the absolute error,
(b) the percentage error, correct to 3 significant figures.
8
19. The speed of light in vacuum is 2.998 × 10 𝑚/𝑠, correct to 4 significant figures. Find
the limits between which the actual speed of light lies.
20. Given that the measured value of the weight of Clara is 48 kg, find
(a) the lower limit of her actual weight if the measured value is correct to 0.5 kg,
(b) the lower limit of her actual weight if the measured value is correct to 1 kg.
21. The weight of a parcel is measured to be 15.0 kg, correct to the nearest 0.5 kg.
(a) Find the maximum absolute error.
(b) Find the range of the actual weight of the parcel lies.
(c) Find the percentage error of the measured value, correct to 3 significant figures.
22. Given that the scale interval of a clinical thermometer is 0.1°C. If the body
temperature of a baby is measured to be 37.5°C, find the percentage error of the measured
value, correct to 3 significant figures.
23. If the time to cook a fish well is measured to be 10 minutes with a percentage error of
10%, find the maximum absolute error.
24. The change in temperature of a solution is measured to be 20°C. If the
percentage error of the measured temperature change is 5%, find its maximum absolute error.
25. Assume that the actual length of a Mathematics textbook is 29.87 cm.
(a) Find the absolute error when the actual length is
(i) correct to the nearest 0.1 cm,
(ii) correct to 2 significant figures.
(b) Find the percentage error in each case in (a), correct to 3 significant figures.
Level 2
1. The weight of Janet’s school bag is 2.81 kg. Find the absolute error when the
weight is

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(a) Correct to the nearest 0.1 kg,
(b) Correct to the nearest kg.
2. Suppose that the actual dimensions of a rectangular box are
23.4 cm × 40.8 cm × 38.1 cm.
(a) Round off the dimensions of the box to the nearest cm and then estimate its
volume.
(b)Find the absolute error of the estimated volume of the box.
5. The capacity of a Coca Cola can is measured to be 355 mL. If the relative error is
0.01, find
(a) the maximum absolute error of the measurement,
(b) the range of the actual capacity of the Coca Cola can.

6. In 2004, the number of babies born in China was 1.59 million, correct to the
nearest 10 thousand. Find the upper limit of the number of babies born in China in
2004.
9. The weights of 4 students are 48.6 kg, 47.1 kg, 38.9 kg and 42.5 kg. Find the
relative error of their average weight if it is rounded off to the nearest 0.1 kg.
10. The speed of a vehicle is measured to be 80 km/h with a percentage error of 5%
by radar. Find the lower limit and the upper limit of the speed.
11. The total weight of 50
1 identical marbles is measured to be 1.2 kg with a
2
percentage error of 13% . Find the upper limit of the weight of each marble.

12. The height of a door is measured to be 2.01 m with a percentage error of 1%.
(a) Find the maximum absolute error,
(b) Find the range of the actual height of the door.

13. The estimated value of the thickness of a piece of paper is 0.005 21 cm.
(a) Round off the estimate value in mm and correct to the nearest 0.002 mm.
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(b) Find the percentage error of the approximation in (a), correct to
4significant figures.

14. By using a ruler with a scale interval 1 mm, the length of a pen is measured to be
x cm and the percentage error is 0.625%. Find the value of x.

16. The lower limit and the upper limit of the measured volume of a bucket are 133
mL and 138 mL respectively.
(a) Find the maximum absolute error of the measurement.
(b) Find the percentage error correct to 3 significant figures.

18. The weight of a loaf of meat measured by an electronic balance is 2.4 kg. Assume
that the actual weight of the meat is 2.421 kg.
(a) Find the absolute error of the measured weight.
(b) What is the maximum absolute error of the reading?
C )What is the percentage error of this reading? (Give your answer correct to 2
significant figures.)
19. Ann and Tom use two different balances to measure the weights of two different
objects. Ann measures the weight of a piece of wood to be 10 kg, where it actually
weighs 10.4 kg. Tom measures the weight of a piece of iron to be 3 kg, where it actually
weighs 2.8 kg.
(a) Find the absolute errors and relative errors made by Ann and Tom respectively.
(b) Tom claims that the measurement with a smaller absolute error is more accurate. Is
he correct? Whose measurement do you think is more accurate?
1. The weight of a bag of potatoes is 25 kg, correct to the nearest kg.

(a) Write down the smallest possible weight of the bag of potatoes .

(b) Write down the largest possible weight of the bag of potatoes .

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2. The length of a line is 63 centimetres, correct to the nearest centimetre.

(a) Write down the least possible length of the line .

(b) Write down the greatest possible length of the line .

At an actual speed of 30 km/h, the speedometer reads 27 km/h in a certain car.

Calculate the percentage error in the speed.
7 (a) Mary’s height is 1.52 m correct to the nearest centimetre. State the lower bound
of her height.

8. A car is 2.6m long, measured correct to 1 decimal place.

(a) Find the range of values between the Upper & Lower Bounds

(b) Find the relative and percentage errors

1(a) The mass of the boy is 25.3 kg measured correct to 1 decimal place.

(i) Calculate the relative error

(ii) Find the largest possible mass

(b) The length of the line L is 10.00 cm correct to 2 decimal places. Find the

(ii) relative as a fraction in the lowest term.

(ii) Find the percentage error.

(iii)limits of accuracy in form of … ≤ 𝐿 < ...

2. The length of the line L is 8.1 cm correct to I decimal place.

(i) Express the limits of accuracy of the length.

(ii) Find the relative as a fraction in the lowest term.

(iii) Find the maximum possible length of the line.

Now you try:

1. A sport pitch has a length of 75 metres, correct to the nearest metre.
Write down the least and the greatest possible length of this pitch.

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2. The reading on a petrol pump shows the amount of petrol bought to the nearest 0.01
litre. This pump shows that Mr Carr was supplied with 19.82 litres of petrol.
(a) What is; the minimum amount he could have obtained?
(b) the maximum amount he could have obtained?
3. Mount Everest is 8848 m high to the nearest metre. What is its smalles possible
height in kilometres?
4. A book weighs 3.2 kg, given to the nearest 100 g. Find the minimum possible
weight of 6 copies of the same book.
5. Ashraf takes 1500 steps to walk d metres from his home to the station.
Each step is 90 centimetres correct to the nearest 10 cm.
Find the lower bound and the upper bound for d.
6. A rod has length 2.9 m, correct to 1 decimal place. What is the upper bound for the
length of the rod?
7. The population, P, of a small island was 6380, correct to the nearest 10.
Complete the statement about the limits of P.
8. The distance between Singapore and Sydney is 6300 km correct to the nearest 100
km. A businessman travelled from Singapore to Sydney and then back to Singapore.
He did this six times in a year. Between what limits is the total distance he travelled?
9.Carmen spends 5 minutes, correct to the nearest minute, preparing one meal.
She spends a total time of T minutes preparing 30 meals. Between what limits does T
lie?
10 . The weight of a bag of potatoes is 25 kg, correct to the nearest kg.

(a) Write down the smallest possible weight of the bag of potatoes

(b) Write down the largest possible weight of the bag of potatoes

11 . The length of a line is 63 centimetres, correct to the nearest centimetre.

(a) Write down the least possible length of the line

(b) Write down the greatest possible length of the line

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The length and breadth of a rectangle, given to the nearest centimeter, are 15cm and
10cm respectively.
Find the shortest possible length and shortest possible breadth of the rectangle.
The longest possible length and the longest possible breadth of the rectangle
The limits between which the area must lie.
Ans:

15cm, given to the nearest centimeter, lies between 14.5cm and 15.5cm. 10cm lies
between 9.5cm and 10.5cm
The shortest possible length = 14.5 and the shortest possible breadth = 9.5cm
The longest possible length =15.5cm and the longest possible breadth is 10.5cm
The smallest possible Area= 14.5 × 9.5
= 137.75cm2
The longest possible Area= 15.5 × 10.5
=162.75cm2
So, the area lies between 137.75cm2 and 162.75cm2 or (137.75cm2 ≤ 𝐴 ≤ 162.75cm2)

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