CHAPTER 5: Skeletal System | Axial Skeleton

BMED 105: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY | 1ST SEM, AY 2024-2025

AXIAL SKELETON • Protects the temporal lobe of the brain and surrounds the ear
• Forms the longitudinal axis of the body. canal.
• Provides support and cushioning for your brain, spinal cord
and organs in your body.
• Can be divided into three parts: skull, vertebral column,
and thoracic cage.
• Skull – formed by two sets of bones: cranium and facial
bones.
o All the bones of the skull are joined together by sutures,
except for the mandible.
o Forms several smaller cavities, including nasal cavities
and orbits.
o Certain skull bones also contain cavities called
paranasal cavities.
o House structures that are involved in hearing and
equilibrium.
o Stabilizes position of the brain, blood vessels, lymphatic
vessels, and nerves through the attachment of their inner
surfaces to membranes.
o Provides support for entrance to the digestive and
respiratory system.

CRANIUM
• Encloses and protects the fragile brain tissue.
• Composed of eight large flat bones; two sets of paired
bones and 4 single bones.

FRONTAL BONE
• Forms the forehead, the bony projections under the
eyebrows, and the superior part of the eye’s orbit.

• Frontal Sinuses – lies deep to the frontal squama; air-filled

cavities lined with mucus-secreting membranes.

OCCIPITAL BONES
• Most posterior bone of the cranium.
• Forms the base and back wall of the skull.
• Join the parietal bones at the lambdoid suture.

PARIETAL BONES
• The paired parietal bones form most of the superior and
lateral walls of the cranium.
• Sagittal Suture – where the parietal bones meet.
• Coronal Suture – where the parietal and frontal bones meet.
• For structure and protection.
.
TEMPORAL BONES
• Atlanto-occipital Joint – allows for the movement of the
• Inferior to the parietal bones and joins them at the squamous
head forwards and backwards.
sutures.
 FACIAL BONES
• Forms the structure of the face, supporting sensory organs
and providing sites for muscle attachment critical for
expression and mastication.
• Composed of 14 bones; major ones include maxillae,
zygomatic, and palatine bones.

MAXILLAE
SPHENOID BONE • Forms the upper jaw and support the facial structure, playing
• Keystone of cranial floor. a key role in mastication and respiration.
• Butterfly-shaped bone; forms part of the cranial base and • Keystone of face.
orbits.
• Houses the sella turcica, protecting the pituitary gland.
• Contains sphenoidal sinuses.

PALATINE BONES
• Paired bones forming the posterior hard palate and part of
the nasal cavity.
• Contributes to the orbits.

ZYGOMATIC BONES
• Cheekbones, forming part of the lateral orbit walls.
• Contribute to facial contour and the orbital framework.

ETHMOID BONE
• Delicate bone forming part of the anterior cranial floor, the
ethmoid contributes to the nasal cavity and orbits. LACRIMAL BONES
• lacrima – tears
• A fingernail-sized bone.
• Smallest bones of the face.
• Posterior and lateral to the nasal bones’ lacrimal bones.
• Forms the part of the medial wall of each orbit.
• Each contains lacrimal fossa that houses lacrimal sac.
• Provide structural support to the lacrimal apparatus.
CHAPTER 5: Skeletal System | A
NASAL BONES Vertebral Column (Spine) & Thoracic
• Two small rectangular bones.
• Positioned in the midface, at their junction. Cage
• Cartilage – major structural portion of nose. BMED 105: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY |
• Forms the bridge of the nose superiorly.
• Anchors the upper lateral nasal cartilages inferiorly. 1ST SEM, AY 2024-2025
• Protect the upper entry to the nasal cavity.
• Provide attachment for a couple of thin facial expressions.
• Vomer Bone – single bone in the median line of the nasal VERTEBRAL COLUMN (SPINE)
cavity.
• Axial support of the body, expending from the skull that it
o Vomer – plowshare
supports, to the pelvis where it transmits the weight of the
o Forms the inferior part of the bony nasal septum.
body to the lower limbs.
o Help support the structure of the nasal passages and
• Composed of 26 irregular bones linked and strengthened
face.
by ligaments to form a flexible, curved structure.
• Inferior Nasal Conchae – thin, curved, scroll-like bones;
• Spinal Cord – housed within the central cavity of the
projecting medially from the lateral walls of the nasal cavity
vertebral column.
o An independent bone; not part of the ethmoid bone.
o Helps swirl & filter air before it passes through the lungs. • Of the 24 single bones:
• 7 vertebrae of the neck are cervical vertebrae.
MANDIBLE • Next 12 are the thoracic vertebrae.
• The remaining 5 supporting the lower back are lumbar
• Lower jaw vertebrae.
• Mand – to chew • Individual vertebrae are cushioned by intervertebral discs
• Largest and strongest facial bone. made of flexible fibrocartilage, which absorb shock and
• Joins the temporal bones on each side of the face, forming provide spinal flexibility.
the only freely movable joints in the skull. • Drying discs and weakening vertebral ligaments increase
susceptibility to herniated ("slipped") discs in older adults.
o Herniated discs may also occur due to extreme twisting
forces, causing the protruding disc to press against the
spinal cord or nerves, resulting in pain or numbness.
• Intervertebral discs and the spine's S-shape help absorb
shocks to the head while walking or running and add
flexibility to the trunk.
• Thoracic & Sacral Curvatures (aka Primary Curvatures)
– present at birth and give the newborn's spine a C-shape.
• Cervical & Lumbar Curvatures (aka Secondary
Curvatures) – develop after birth.

THREE TYPES OF ABNORMAL SPINAL CURVATURES

IDENTIFIED BY SIMPLE OBSERVATION

HYOID BONE

COMMON FEATURES OF VERTEBRAE

 CERVICAL VERTEBRAE (C1 TO C7) • Twelve pairs of ribs numbered 1–12 from superior to inferior,
• Most superior section of the spine, consisting of seven give structural support to the sides of the thoracic cavity.
vertebrae (C1–C7). • All the ribs articulate with the vertebral column posteriorly
• Smaller and more flexible than others, allowing for head and then curve downward and toward the anterior body
movement and neck flexibility. surface.
• Atlas (C1) – first cervical vertebra; supports the skull; lacks • Ribs make up the primary structure of the thoracic cage,
a body and spinous process. safeguarding the organs in the chest.
• Axis (C2) – second cervical vertebra, characterized by the • Primary function is to assist in respiration.
dens (odontoid process), a tooth-like projection serving as a • True Ribs – first seven pairs, attach directly to the sternum
pivot for the rotation of the atlas and skull. by costal cartilages.
• C3 to C7 – smallest and lightest, with foramina in their • False Ribs – next five pairs, either attach indirectly to the
transverse processes for the passage of vertebral arteries. sternum or are not attached to the sternum at all.
The spinous processes are often bifid (split into two • Floating Ribs – last two pairs of false ribs lack the sternal
branches). attachments.
• Intercostal Spaces – spaces between the ribs; filled with the
intercostal muscles, which aid in breathing.

CLINICAL CONNECTION
1. Rib Fracture
2. Dislocated Ribs
3. Separated Ribs

THORACIC AND LUMBAR VERTEBRAE

THORACIC VERTEBRAE (T1–T12) CHAPTER 5: Skeletal System | The
• These vertebrae articulate with the ribs, providing a
protective cage for the heart and lungs. Appendicular Skeleton
• Features: BMED 105: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY |
o Heart-shaped bodies
o Long spinous processes that angle downward 1ST SEM, AY 2024-2025
o Costal facets for rib articulation

LUMBAR VERTEBRAE (L1–L5): Appendicular Skeleton

• Largest and strongest vertebrae, designed to bear the body’s • Consists of 126 bones that include the limbs and the girdles
weight. connecting them to the axial skeleton.
• Recognizable by their large, kidney-shaped bodies and o pectoral girdle (clavicles and scapulae)
short, blunt spinous processes. o upper limbs (humerus, radius, ulna, carpals,
metacarpals, and phalanges)
SACRUM AND COCCYX o pelvic girdle (hip bones)
• Sacrum – formed by the fusion of five vertebrae (S1–S5). o lower limbs (femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals,
Triangular and located at the base of the spine. metatarsals, and phalanges)
• Coccyx (aka Tailbone) – formed by the fusion of three to • Primary functions: facilitating movement, supporting posture,
five small vertebrae. and protecting organs, such as those in the pelvis.
• Shoulder Girdle – connects the upper limbs to the axial
THORACIC CAGE skeleton; consists of the clavicle and scapula bones on each
• Bony enclosure formed by the sternum, ribs and their costal side of the body.
cartilages, and the bodies of the thoracic vertebrae. • Clavicle (Collarbone) – slender, s-shaped, horizontal bone
• Encloses and protects the organs in thoracic and superior connecting the sternum to the scapula; first bone in the body
abdominal cavities. to begin ossification, but last to fully fuse at its growth plates.
• Provides support for the bones of the upper limbs and plays
a role in breathing.
• Sternum (Breastbone) – flat, narrow bone located in the
center of the anterior thoracic wall that measures about 15
cm (6 in.).
o Manubrium – superior part.
o Body – middle and largest part.
o Xiphoid Process – Inferior and smallest part.
• Jugular Notch – concave upper border of the manubrium.
• Sternal Angle – results where the manubrium and body
meet at a slight angle to each other, so that a transverse
ridge is formed at the level of the second ribs.
• Xiphisternal Joint – point where the sternal body and
xiphoid process fuse, lies at the level of the ninth thoracic
vertebra.

RIBS
Functions of Clavicle:
 o Acts as a strut (or structural support) to support and
maintain the position of the scapula and arm, keeping
them positioned away from the thorax for better mobility.
o Optimal Muscle Function
o Protection
o Attachment site for several muscles: pectoralis major
(medial end), deltoid (lateral end), and trapezius
(posterior surface).
• The Scapula (Shoulder Blade) – flat, triangular bone
situated on the posterior thoracic cage between the second • Distal End:
and seventh ribs.

Functional Roles of the Scapula:

o Mobility and Stability

FOREARM BONES
• Radius – lateral bone; on the thumb side of the forearm.
o Smaller bone of forearm
o Narrow at its proximal end and widens at its distal end;
the proximal end of radius has a disc-shaped head that
articulates with the capitulum of the humerus and the
radial notch of the ulna.

Joints of the Scapula:

1. Sternoclavicular Joint
2. Acromioclavicular Joint
3. Glenohumeral Joint

ARM BONES
• Humerus – long bone that connects the shoulder to the
forearm, forming the upper arm.
• Proximal End:

HAND BONES
• Carpals – carpus (wrist); proximal region of the hand; consist
of 8 small bones and joined by ligaments that restrict
movements between them.
• Metacarpals – metacarpus (palm); intermediate region;
• Shaft: consists of 5 bones.
o numbered from I-V, from thumb to little finger.
o Carpometacarpal Joints – formed by bases that
articulate with the distal row of carpal bones.
• Phalanges – 14 phalanges in each hand. • Metatarsals – 5 bones forming the forefoot.
o Pollex (thumb) has 2 phalanges: proximal and distal; • Phalanges – 14 tiny bones that articulate with metatarsals
other 4 digits: proximal, middle, and distal. and allow flexible toe movements.
o Phalanx – single bone of a digit. • Overall function: support body weight.
o Interphalangeal Joints – joints between phalanges.

HIP BONE
• Pelvic Girdle – attached securely to the axial skeleton via
the sacral attachment to the L5 lumbar vertebra.
o Large, heavy; sockets that receive thigh bones are deep
and heavily reinforced by ligaments that attach the limbs
firmly to the girdle.
o Bears weight of upper body; protects reproductive
organs, and urinary bladder.
o Sacroiliac Joints – unite posteriorly (back) with the
sacrum.
• Ilium – superior region; connects posteriorly with the sacrum CHAPTER 5: Skeletal System | Joints &
at the sacroiliac joint.
o Largest component of the hip bone. Developmental Aspects of Skeleton
o Supports upper body and facilitates locomotion BMED 105: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY |
attachment point for muscles of the trunk and hip support
for lower abdomen (false pelvis). 1ST SEM, AY 2024-2025
• Ischium – inferior and posterior part of hip bone; “sit-down
bone” as it forms the most inferior part of coxal bone.
o Narrows the outlet of the pelvis through which the baby
must pass. JOINTS (AKA ARTICULATIONS)
o Site of attachment for thigh muscles • Sites where two or more bones meet.
o Balance and maintaining erect posture; minimal muscle • Every bone in the body, except for the hyoid bone in the neck,
involvement. forms a joint with at least one other bone.
• Pubis – anterior and inferior part of the hip bone; most • Functions of Joints: Hold the bones together securely and
“forward-facing” bone since it makes up the anteroinferior provide mobility to the skeleton.
(forward and below) portion of the pelvic ring.
o Supports and protects urinary and internal sexual organs. CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS
o Protects vital organs in abdominal cavities. 1. Functional Classification – focuses on the amount of
o Attachment points for muscles and ligaments movement the joint allows.
• Synarthroses (or immovable joints)
• Amphiarthroses (or slightly movable)
• Diarthroses (or freely movable joints)
2. Structural Classification – based on whether fibrous
tissue, cartilage, or a joint cavity separates the bony regions
at the joint.
• Fibrous – immovable.
• Cartilaginous – both immovable and slightly movable.
• Synovial Joint – freely movable.

FIBROUS JOINTS
• Joints in which the bones are connected by fibrous tissue.
• They are called fixed or immovable joints as they do not allow
any movement between the bones.
• They do not have a joint cavity, and the fibrous tissue which
connects the bones is made up of collagen fibers.
• Types of fibrous joints:
THIGH
• Only bone in the thigh.
• Longest and strongest bone in the body.
• Sites for muscle attachment.
• Supports weight, stabilizes the body, and movement.

LEG
• Tibia – longer and thicker; bears weight; connected with the
femur at its superior end and the tarsals at its inferior end.
• Fibula – thin and sticklike; located laterally to tibia.
• Both provide stability and support to the rest of the body.

FOOT
• Tarsals – 7 bones allowing minor adjustments to foot
position.
 5. Saddle Joint
6. Ball-and-socket Joint

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF SKELETON

CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS
• Specialized types of joints, which are classified based on
their structure.
• These joints are mainly involved in a slight movement, which
lacks a joint cavity and comprises bones that are joined
together either by fibrocartilage or hyaline cartilage.
• Types of cartilaginous joints:

SYNOVIAL JOINTS
• Joints in which the articulating bone ends are separated by
a joint cavity containing synovial fluid.
• All joints of the limbs are synovial joints.
• Synovial joints have four distinguishing features:

TYPE OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS BASED ON SHAPE

1. Plane Joint
2. Hinge Joint
3. Pivot Joint
4. Condylar Joint