applied

sciences
Article
Filament X-ray Tube Current Control Method Using Indirect
Filament Temperature Estimation
Je-Jin Jang , He-Lin Zhu and Hyung-Soo Mok *

Department of Electrical Engineering, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea; [email protected] (J.-J.J.);
[email protected] (H.-L.Z.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +82-2-450-3479

Abstract: The recent increase in ailments has increased the demand for diagnosis and surgery based
on X-rays. An X-ray system using a filament-type tube heats the filament for operation, and the
electrons emitted by the thermal energy during this process produce X-rays. Conventionally, current
control-based methods are used to regulate heating. However, these methods do not control the
temperature of the filament, resulting in lower or higher output than the desired dose rate. Therefore,
we propose a filament temperature control method that enables constant temperature control, which
cannot be achieved using the existing heating method for X-ray systems with filament tubes. Ad-
ditionally, we developed an indirect temperature estimation algorithm for the tungsten filament to
incorporate the proposed method. To validate the tube current control through temperature control,
we performed experiments to compare the existing current-controlled heating and temperature
control methods in terms of the filament temperature. As the tube current is proportional to the
dose rate, it was measured through a comparative analysis of the change in the output of dose rate



over time. The obtained results validate that the proposed method can maintain both the filament


temperature and tube current at the desired level.
Citation: Jang, J.-J.; Zhu, H.-L.;
Mok, H.-S. Filament X-ray Tube
Keywords: temperature estimation; current control; filament X-ray tube; closed-loop temperature
Current Control Method Using
control; X-ray system
Indirect Filament Temperature
Estimation. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10588.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
app112210588
1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Salvatore Gallo Images or videos obtained through X-ray equipment are used to diagnose or operate
on the affected areas of a patient. As depicted in Figure 1, the image acquisition procedure
Received: 24 September 2021 of the X-ray equipment comprises the following steps [1]:
Accepted: 9 November 2021
1. The filament is heated at a high temperature, and thermal electrons are emitted into a
Published: 10 November 2021
vacuum [2].
2. The emitted electrons are accelerated to an anode, generating a tube current that flows
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
through the vacuum tube.
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
3. The accelerated electrons are converted into X-rays after their collision with the anode.
published maps and institutional affil-
4. Certain generated X-rays pass through the patient and reach the detector [3,4].
iations.
5. An image is obtained after the photons that reach the detector undergo image processing.
Several types of filament heating methods are currently used: analog current control
method [5], digital current control method [6–8], heating method with a constant gradient
to the filament heating current [9], and a method that supplies a constant voltage to the
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
filament. The analog control method configuration has been used in electric step-down
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
transformers and variable resistors. The filament current depends on the resistance and the
distributed under the terms and
transformer turn ratio. However, these components increase the system volume and heat
conditions of the Creative Commons generation, and they can heat the filament only at a calculated current value. Due to the
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// miniaturization trend of the industry, the above problems were overcome using the digital
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ current control method. The filament heating current command increases along a constant
4.0/). slope, which is used to reduce the stress on the filament, thereby increasing the longevity

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10588. https://doi.org/10.3390/app112210588 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

 Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10588 2 of 14

of the X-ray tube. Additionally, for faster filament heating, DC is applied to the filament;
however, the existing current control method is mainly used due to the filament longevity,
cost-efficiency, and volume increase caused by using diodes for the voltage rectifier. In the
conventional heating method, the filament is heated to a temperature at which electrical
input energy and thermal loss are similar. The thermal energy is proportional to the square
of the current flowing. In addition, the resistance of the filament and the thermal property
of tungsten change non-linearly with temperature; thus, heat loss and calorific value have
a non-linear relationship with temperature. As described above, if there is a difference
between the input energy and the lost energy over time, the temperature changes, which in
turn changes the amount of X-ray exposure (dose rate) to the patient’s body. This resulted
in scenarios where the temperature deviated from the regulated value [10]. Therefore, we
aimed to solve the aforementioned problem in this study by controlling the temperature
of the filament based on the change in the electrical resistance of tungsten considering
its temperature. To validate the effectiveness of the proposed approach in comparison
with that of the existing filament heating method, a comparative analysis was performed
experimentally based on the changes in the dose rate and filament temperature over time.
To compare the dose rate emitted by the X-ray tube, we measured the tube current, which
is proportional to the dose rate [11]. Additionally, the filament temperature was observed
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 14
over an empirical period that is suitable for the experimental conditions to verify that the
emitted dose rate can be maintained constant by regulating the filament temperature.

Figure 1. 1.
Figure Schematic ofof
Schematic the X-ray
the image
X-ray acquisition.
image acquisition.

2. Principle of Operation
Several types of filament heating methods are currently used: analog current control
2.1. Thermionic
method Emission
[5], digital current control method [6–8], heating method with a constant gradient
to the filament heating
Filament temperature current
can[9], and a method
be regulated that suppliesthe
by understanding a constant
electricalvoltage to the
characteristics
filament. The analog control method configuration has been used in
of the filament as a function of temperature. The filament X-ray tube generates X-rays electric step-down
transformers
using thermal and variableemitted
electrons resistors.
intoThe filament
a vacuum fromcurrent depends on the
a high-temperature resistance
metal and
that receives
the transformer
energy greater turn
thanratio. However,
the work these
function. components
The increasebythe
electrons emitted thesystem
heating volume
generateandan
heat generation,
electron and they
cloud around can
the heat theand
filament, filament only atofa space
the number calculated current
charges value.
remains Due toat
constant
the miniaturization
a constant filamenttrend of the industry,
temperature the above
[12]. Under problems
a constant filamentweretemperature
overcome using the
condition,
digital current control
the magnitude of the method. The filament
current density flowingheating current command
in the vacuum changes owingincreases
to thealong a
thermal
constant
electronsslope,
basedwhich is used
on the anode to voltage.
reduce the stress
This on the filament,
magnitude thereby increasing
can be classified the
into the space
longevity of the X-ray
charge-limited regime tube.
andAdditionally, for fasterregime
temperature-limited filament heating,
based on theDC is applied
variation to the
in current
density however,
filament; [13]. The theequations
existingofcurrent
Child’scontrol
law and Richardson’s
method is mainlylaw usedexhibit
due tothethecorrelation
filament
between the
longevity, anode voltage
cost-efficiency, andand tube current
volume increaseatcaused
a constant filament
by using temperature.
diodes Here, d
for the voltage
rectifier. In the conventional heating method, the filament is heated to a temperature at
which electrical input energy and thermal loss are similar. The thermal energy is propor-
tional to the square of the current flowing. In addition, the resistance of the filament and
the thermal property of tungsten change non-linearly with temperature; thus, heat loss
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10588 3 of 14

denotes the thermal electron acceleration distance; e0 indicates the free space permittivity;
me represents the electron mass; e denotes the electron charge; V indicates the anode
voltage; A0 represents the Richardson constant of tungsten, which equals 60 cm−2 ·K−2 ; ϕ
denotes the work function of tungsten; k indicates the Boltzmann constant, which equals
1.3806 ×10−23 m2 ·kg·s−2 ·K−1 ; and T represents the absolute temperature K.

2e V 3/2
r
4e0
J= (1)
9 m e d2

J = A0 T 2 e− ϕ/kT (2)
After determining the anode voltage and tube current values using Equations (1) and (2), the
filament temperature is the only variable associated with the tube current. An increase in
the temperature of the metal increases the vibrational energy of the metal atoms, which in
turn increases the electrical resistance. Table 1 summarizes the electrical resistivity and the
change in resistivity rate of tungsten based on the temperature [14,15]. Herein, ρ denotes
the resistivity of tungsten, and R/R300K indicates the ratio of the resistivity at the current
temperature to that at room temperature.

Table 1. Tungsten resistivity and ratio with temperature.

Temperature Temperature Temperature Temperature

R/R300K ρ (µΩcm) R/R300K ρ (µΩcm) R/R300K ρ (µΩcm) R/R300K ρ (µΩcm)
(K) (K) (K) (K)
1.0 300 5.65 5.48 1200 30.98 10.63 2100 60.06 16.29 3000 92.04
1.43 400 8.06 6.03 1300 34.08 11.24 2200 63.48 16.95 3100 95.76
1.87 500 10.56 6.58 1400 37.19 11.84 2300 66.91 17.62 3200 99.54
2.34 600 13.23 7.14 1500 40.36 12.46 2400 70.39 18.28 3300 103.3
2.85 700 16.09 7.71 1600 43.55 13.08 2500 73.91 18.97 3400 107.2
3.36 800 19.00 8.28 1700 46.78 13.72 2600 77.49 19.66 3500 111.1
3.88 900 21.94 8.86 1800 50.05 14.34 2700 81.04 20.35 3600 115.0
4.41 1000 24.93 9.44 1900 53.35 14.99 2800 84.70
4.95 1100 27.94 10.03 2000 56.67 15.63 2900 88.33

Figure 2 illustrates the resistivity ratio of tungsten considering the temperature listed
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
in Table 1. Based on Figure 2, the electrical resistivity can be expressed as a function4 ofof
14
temperature using Equation (3).

Figure2.2.Temperature
Figure Temperaturedependence
dependenceofoftungsten
tungstenresistivity.
resistivity.

 
−3 −6 2
Rw 𝑅= 48
= 48(1 + 4.8297
1 + 4.8297 × 10T +𝑇 1.663
× 10 + 1.663 × 10T 𝑇 [nΩm
× 10 ) 𝑛Ωm
] (3)
(3)

2.2. Tungsten Thermal Properties

The electrical energy is converted into thermal energy when the tungsten filament
applies as the load, as expressed in Equation (4). Here, 𝑉 denotes the load voltage, 𝐼 in-
dicates the load current, and 𝑅 represents the resistance value at absolute temperature
𝑇. Based on Equation (4), the heating value of the tungsten filament can be obtained, as
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10588 4 of 14

2.2. Tungsten Thermal Properties

The electrical energy is converted into thermal energy when the tungsten filament
applies as the load, as expressed in Equation (4). Here, V denotes the load voltage, I
indicates the load current, and R T represents the resistance value at absolute temperature
T. Based on Equation (4), the heating value of the tungsten filament can be obtained, as
shown in Equation (5). Here, m denotes the mass of the tungsten filament, c p indicates the
heat capacity, and ∆T represents the absolute temperature change.

P = V I = I 2 RT (4)
Z t2
Q= Pdt = mc p ∆T (5)
t1

The temperature is maintained constant at the point where the input energy matches
the heat loss. However, as the temperature of the metal varies, thermal properties, such as
the heat capacity, conductivity, and radiation coefficient, change owing to the variations in
the internal energy and vibrational motion of the metal atoms [16–18].
The heat losses in the filament of an X-ray vacuum tube are primarily classified into ra-
diation and conduction losses, which can be expressed as indicated in Equations (6) and (7),
respectively. Here, Pcon represents the conduction heat loss; k con denotes the thermal con-
ductivity of the material; A indicates the heat transit area; ∆T represents the absolute
temperature change; ∆x denotes the conduction distance; Prad indicates the radiation heat
loss; σ represents the Stefan–Boltzmann constant; ε denotes the emissivity of the material;
A indicates the surface area of the object; and T represents the temperature of the metal.

Pcon = k con A∆T/∆x (6)

Prad = εσAT 4 (7)

The relationship between the tungsten temperature, heat capacity, thermal conductiv-
ity, and emissivity is presented in Equations (8)–(10) [16].
     
c p = 135.76 + 9.1159 × 10−3 T + 2.3134 × 10−9 T 3 − 6.5233 × 105 T −2 (8)
 
k con = 108.34 − 1.052 × 10−2 T + 23419.9/T (9)
   
ε T = −2.6875 × 10−2 + 1.819696 × 10−4 T − 2.1946163 × 10−8 T 2 (10)

Figure 3 illustrates the thermal properties of filament considering the temperature

based on Equations (8)–(10).
Equations (4)–(10) indicate the difference in heat loss based on the temperature of
the tungsten filament. When the approximate loss is calculated at 300 and 3000 K, the
conduction loss increases from 7.4 mW to 1.579 W, and the radiation loss from 0.1644 mW
to 2.0661 W, which varies non-linearly with temperature. Thus, temperature control
is essential to maintain it constant considering the non-linear changes of the thermal
properties, based on the temperature, of the tungsten filament.
 𝜀 = −2.6875 × 10 + (1.819696 × 10 )𝑇 − (2.1946163 × 10 )𝑇 (10)

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10588 Figure 3 illustrates the thermal properties of filament considering the temperature
5 of 14
based on Equations (8)–(10).

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure
Figure3. The thermal
3. The properties
thermal of filament
properties of filamentconsidering thethe
considering temperature: (a) (a)
temperature: filament heat
filament capacity,
heat capacity,
(b)(b)
filament thermal conductivity, and (c) filament emissivity.
filament thermal conductivity, and (c) filament emissivity.

3. Equations (4)–(10) Temperature

Indirect Filament indicate the difference
Estimationin heat loss based on the temperature of the
Algorithm
tungsten filament. When
3.1. Conventional Methodthe approximate loss is calculated at 300 and 3000 K, the conduc-
tion loss increases from 7.4 mW to 1.579 W, and the radiation loss from 0.1644 mW to
Filament heating uses a filament driver circuit, as illustrated in Figure 4, to authorize
2.0661 W, which varies non-linearly with temperature. Thus, temperature control is es-
the current command in a step or gradient method to heat the filament [6–9]. However, as
sential to maintain it constant considering the non-linear changes of the thermal proper-
indicated in Equations (4), (5) and (8)–(11), the filament properties based on the temperature
ties,
andbased on the temperature,
variations in temperature of the tungsten
exhibit filament.relationship with the input current.
a non-linear
Therefore, the current and voltage command values are tuned according to the desired
3. Indirect Filament Temperature Estimation Algorithm
dose rate based on the experience of the medical personnel in terms of the conventional
3.1.method.
Conventional Method the sublimation of tungsten reduces its cross-sectional area with the
Additionally,
continuous use
Filament heatingof the filament
uses tubedriver
a filament [9]. This changes
circuit, the resistance
as illustrated value,
in Figure 4, tocausing
authorizeit to
the current command in a step or gradient method to heat the filament [6–9]. However, as to
converge to a higher temperature at the same current input. In such cases, it is difficult
control in
indicated theEquations
filament temperature preciselythe
(4), (5), and (8)–(11), andfilament
match the desired tube
properties basedcurrent.
on the temper-
ature and variations in temperature exhibit a non-linear relationship with the input cur-
rent. Therefore, the current and voltage command values are tuned according to the de-
sired dose rate based on the experience of the medical personnel in terms of the conven-
tional method. Additionally, the sublimation of tungsten reduces its cross-sectional area
with the continuous use of the filament tube [9]. This changes the resistance value, causing
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 14

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10588 6 of 14

it to converge to a higher temperature at the same current input. In such cases, it is difficult
to control the filament temperature precisely and match the desired tube current.

Figure 4. Conventional filament driver circuit and the control diagram.

Figure 4. Conventional filament driver circuit and the control diagram.
3.2. Proposed Method
3.2. Proposed
The filamentMethod temperature is uncontrolled in the case of the existing filament heating
method, which results
The filament temperature in higherisdose rates thaninthe
uncontrolled therequired
case of thevalue duringfilament
existing the analysis of
heating
diseases [9]. Therefore, when operating the X-ray equipment,
method, which results in higher dose rates than the required value during the analysis of it is necessary to achieve
adiseases
certain [9].
level of closed-loop
Therefore, temperature
when operating the control to generate
X-ray equipment, thenecessary
it is tube current in thea
to achieve
magnitude
certain level ofofthe image quality
closed-loop [19] required
temperature control for the analysis.the
to generate Therefore,
tube current the temperature
in the mag-
needs
nitudetoofbethemeasured;
image quality however, [19]the heated for
required filament is in the Therefore,
the analysis. vacuum ofthe the temperature
tube and is
heated at temperatures higher than 1900 K. Considering
needs to be measured; however, the heated filament is in the vacuum of the tube and the location of the filament andis
the measurement temperature range, a non-contact temperature
heated at temperatures higher than 1900 𝐾. Considering the location of the filament and measurement method
is
therequired.
measurement However, as the voltage
temperature range, a is high (up to
non-contact 100 kV) and
temperature the vacuum
measurement tube isis
method
surrounded
required. However, as the voltage is high (up to 100 kV) and the vacuum tube is and
by insulating oil, introducing the sensors may affect the maintenance sur-
the measurement accuracy owing to the change in emissivity.
rounded by insulating oil, introducing the sensors may affect the maintenance and the Hence, it is difficult to
configure a closed-loop control considering the directly measured
measurement accuracy owing to the change in emissivity. Hence, it is difficult to configure temperature value. To
solve this problem,
a closed-loop controlthe temperature
considering theof the tungsten
directly measured filament was derived
temperature value. as Toindicated
solve this
in Equation (11), considering the change in resistivity based
problem, the temperature of the tungsten filament was derived as indicated in Equation on the tungsten filament
temperatures listed in Table 1 [20]. The temperature of the current filament is indirectly
(11), considering the change in resistivity based on the tungsten filament temperatures
estimated in Equation (11) by substituting the electrical resistivity value calculated in the
listed in Table 1 [20]. The temperature of the current filament is indirectly estimated in
digital signal processor (DSP) [21]. The temperature proportional-integral (PI) controller
Equation (11) by substituting the electrical resistivity value calculated in the digital signal
was constituted using the estimated filament temperature value. As the filament resistance
processor (DSP) [21]. The temperature proportional-integral (PI) controller was consti-
and thermal property variation based on the temperature exhibit a non-linear relationship
tuted using the estimated filament temperature value. As the filament resistance and ther-
with the electrical input and heat generation, the PI gain was tuned considering the
mal property variation based on the temperature exhibit a non-linear relationship with
overshoot and rise time of the current and voltage.
the electrical input and heat generation, the PI gain was tuned considering the overshoot
and rise time of the current r and ρ voltage.
T= + 1.5744 × 106 − 1.4788 × 103 [K] (11)
7.8384 ×𝜌10−15
𝑇= + 1.5744 × 10 − 1.4788 × 10 𝐾 (11)
7.8384 × 10
The filament is composed of a tungsten wire in a spiral shape. Although the spiral
The filament
fabrication generates is composed of a tungsten
electrical resistance wire in a spiral
and inductance shape. Although
components, the spiral
the inductance at
fabrication
room generates
temperature electrical can
impedance resistance
be ignoredand inductance
as it accounts components,
for less than the0.001%
inductance of theat
room temperature
resistance. Therefore,impedance
to indirectly canestimate
be ignored as it accounts
the temperature for tungsten
of the less thanfilament
0.001% using of the
resistance.(11),
Equation Therefore, to indirectly estimate
the temperature-based changes the temperature
in length and of the tungsten filament
cross-sectional area ofusingthe
Equationwere
filament (11),disregarded.
the temperature-based
The error between changes the in length and
estimated cross-sectional
temperature and thearea commandof the
temperature
filament were is disregarded.
controlled through The error the between
PI temperature controller,
the estimated and the input
temperature and the current
com-
required to maintain
mand temperature the temperature
is controlled through is the
controlled by changing
PI temperature the current
controller, and thecommand
input cur-
for
renteach error.toTherefore,
required maintain the it istemperature
converted into a pulse width
is controlled modulation
by changing (PWM)
the current signal
command
through the voltage command of the inverter through the PI current controller to control
the filament temperature.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 14

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10588 for each error. Therefore, it is converted into a pulse width modulation (PWM) signal 7 of 14

through the voltage command of the inverter through the PI current controller to control
the filament temperature.
Figure55depicts
Figure depictsthe
theprocedure
procedure
forfor achieving
achieving an an indirect
indirect temperature
temperature estimation
estimation of
of the
the filament, which can be summarized as
filament, which can be summarized as follows: follows:
1.
1. The
The voltage
voltage is measured at
is measured at both
both ends
ends of
of the
the filament;
filament;
2.
2. The primary current of the transformer is measured
The primary current of the transformer is measured for for insulation;
insulation;
3.
3. The measured voltage is divided by the current
The measured voltage is divided by the current to calculateto calculate the resistance of theoftung-
the resistance the
sten filament.
tungsten If the Ifheating
filament. current
the heating is 0 A,isthe
current resistance
0 A, cannotcannot
the resistance be calculated. There-
be calculated.
fore, the calculation
Therefore, must must
the calculation be performed considering
be performed the resistance
considering valuevalue
the resistance obtained
ob-
when the current exceeds a certain value. The heating current at this
tained when the current exceeds a certain value. The heating current at this point point represents
the maximum
represents the heating
maximum current value
heating on thevalue
current filament datasheet,
on the filamentand the flowing
datasheet, and cur-
the
rent is limited through software;
flowing current is limited through software;
4.
4. The calculated resistance is converted into resistivity based on the length and cross-
sectional area of the filament;
5.
5. The temperature of the filament is estimated estimated using the the resistivity,
resistivity, as
as indicated
indicated in in
Equation (11).

Figure 5.
Figure 5. Filament
Filament driver
driver circuit
circuit and
and control
controlalgorithm
algorithmof
ofthe
theproposed
proposedmethod.
method.

4.
4. Experiments
Experiments
To
To validate
validate the
the effectiveness
effectiveness ofof the
the proposed
proposed filament
filament temperature
temperature control
control method,
method,
we performed a comparison experiment using the setup depicted
we performed a comparison experiment using the setup depicted in Figure 6. As the in Figure 6. As pro-
the
proposed
posed temperature estimation algorithm requires highly accurate measurements of the
temperature estimation algorithm requires highly accurate measurements of the
voltage
voltageandandcurrent
currentauthorized
authorizedtotothethefilament
filament from
from thethe
filament
filament heating
heatingcircuit (Figure
circuit (Figure5),
verification experiments
5), verification experiments werewereconducted
conducted at at
thethemeasurement
measurement points.
points.Figures
Figures77andand 88
illustrate
illustrate the
the waveforms
waveforms obtained
obtained from
from the the verification
verification experiment
experiment of ofthe
themeasurement
measurement
points
points of
of the
the voltage
voltage and
and current
current authorized
authorized to to the
the filament,
filament, respectively.
respectively.Figure
Figure77depicts
depicts
the primary and secondary voltages and the root-mean-square
the primary and secondary voltages and the root-mean-square (RMS) conversion (RMS) conversion results of
results
the 1:1 transformer depicted in Figures 4 and 5. Herein, an additional
of the 1:1 transformer depicted in Figures 4 and 5. Herein, an additional 3.5 V voltage drop 3.5 V voltage drop
was
was observed
observed between
between the the primary
primary and and secondary
secondary windings
windings of of the
the transformer,
transformer, which
which
represents
represents the measurement point of the voltage authorized to the filament.This
the measurement point of the voltage authorized to the filament. Thisimplies
implies
that
that the
the primary
primary winding
winding of of the
theinsulating
insulatingtransformer
transformerisisinaccurate.
inaccurate. Figure
Figure 88illustrates
illustrates
the results of the current measurements on the primary
the results of the current measurements on the primary and secondary windingsand secondary windings of aof1:1
a
1:1 insulating transformer. The blue and green waveforms denote the currents on the
insulating transformer. The blue and green waveforms denote the currents on the primary
primary and secondary windings, respectively. As the RMS values of the primary and
and secondary windings, respectively. As the RMS values of the primary and secondary
secondary winding currents coincide at 98%, the results verify that the filament heating
winding currents coincide at 98%, the results verify that the filament heating current can
current can be measured on both the primary and secondary windings. Therefore, based
on the values measured on the secondary winding, we determined that the voltage must
be authorized to operate the proposed algorithm. Moreover, the current value measured
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10588 be measured on both the primary and secondary windings. Therefore, 8based of 14 on th
measured on the secondary winding, we determined that the voltage must be au
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 14
to operate the proposed algorithm. Moreover, the current value measured at the
winding
at is used
the primary for is
winding the operation
used of the proposed
for the operation temperature
of the proposed estimation
temperature estimationalgorith
algorithm,
ilar to thesimilar to the conventional
conventional current current
controlcontrol
method method.
be measured on both the primary and secondary windings. Therefore, based on the values
measured on the secondary winding, we determined that the voltage must be authorized
to operate the proposed algorithm. Moreover, the current value measured at the primary
winding is used for the operation of the proposed temperature estimation algorithm, sim-
ilar to the conventional current control method

Figure6. 6.
Figure Experimental
Experimental setupsetup for comparison
for comparison of the conventional
of the conventional current
current control with thecontrol with the
proposed
Figure 6. Experimental
temperature setup
control. for comparison of the conventional current control with the proposed
temperature control.
temperature control.

Figure
Figure 7.
7. Primary
Primary winding
winding and
and secondary
secondary winding
winding voltage
voltage results
results of
of the
the filament
filament in
in the
the insulating
insulating transformer.
transformer. (Note:
(Note:
𝑉 ∶ 1st wind voltage, 𝑉 ∶ 2nd wind voltage, 𝑉 ∶ 1st wind voltage rms value, 𝑉 ∶ 2nd wind voltage rms value).
Vp : 1st wind voltage, Vs : 2nd wind voltage, Vprms : 1st wind voltage rms value, Vsrms : 2nd wind voltage rms value).

Figure 7. Primary winding and secondary winding voltage results of the filament in the insulating transformer. (N
𝑉 ∶ 1st wind voltage, 𝑉 ∶ 2nd wind voltage, 𝑉 ∶ 1st wind voltage rms value, 𝑉 ∶ 2nd wind voltage rms value).
 Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10588 9 of 14
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 14

. Primary winding and secondary winding current results of the filament in the insulating transformer. (Note:
wind current, 𝐼 ∶ 2nd wind current).

To estimate the temperature using the measured heating voltage and current values
FigureFigure 8. Primary
8. Primary winding
winding andand secondarywinding
secondary winding current
current results
resultsofofthe
thefilament in the
filament insulating
in the transformer.
insulating (Note: (Note:
transformer.
𝐼 and to verify
∶ 1st wind current, 𝐼 the
∶ 2ndaccuracy,
wind current).stability, and repeatability of the controller, experiments were
I p : 1st wind current, Is : 2nd wind current).
repeated 10 times for a total of 5 reference temperatures from 1700 to 2100 K with a differ-
To estimate the temperature using the measured heating voltage and current values
ence of 100 K. Figure To estimate thethe
temperature using the measured heating voltage andtemperature,
current values
and to 9 shows
verify results
the accuracy, of
stability, five
and waveforms
repeatability of theof a reference
controller, experiments were
and
estimated temperatureto verify
repeated and the
10 times accuracy,
for a totalstability,
temperature of 5error and repeatability
at temperatures
reference each of the
reference.
from controller,
Table
1700 K experiments
2 shows
to 2100 with athe were
results
differ-
repeated
ence 10 times
of 100 K. Figurefor a total of 5 reference
9 shows the results temperatures
of five waveforms from 1700
of a reference to 2100 K
temperature,with a
of displaying the maximum
difference
and minimum
oftemperature
100 K. Figure
temperature error value, reference tempera-
estimated and9 temperature
shows the results
error atofeach
fivereference.
waveforms of a2 reference
Table shows the temperature,
results
ture, average temperature,
estimated
of displaying and
temperature average
the maximum error
and temperature
and to show
minimum error the
at accuracy
each
temperature reference.ofTable
error value, temperature
2 shows
reference thecontrol
tempera- results
for each reference.
of displaying
ture, averagethe maximumand
temperature, andaverage
minimumerrortemperature error value,
to show the accuracy reference control
of temperature temperature,
for each
average reference. and average error to show the accuracy of temperature control for
temperature,
each reference.

(a) 1700 K

(a) 1700 K
Figure 9. Cont.
1, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 14

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10588 10 of 14

(b) 1800 K

(c) 1900 K
Figure 9. Cont.
11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 14
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10588 11 of 14

(d) 2000 K

(e) 2100 K
Figure 9. Reference 9. Referenceestimated
temperature,
Figure temperature, estimated temperature,
temperature, and temperature
and temperature error waveforms
error waveforms for
for tem-
temperature references of (a) 1700 K, (b) 1800 K, (c) 1900 K, (d) 2000
perature references of (a) 1700 K, (b) 1800 K, (c) 1900 K, (d) 2000 K and (e) 2100 K. K and (e) 2100 K.

As a result of temperature control, the overall average error was 3.1 K, and the re-
Table 2. Comparison of theand
peatability temperature controller
stability were accuracy
verified. for different
Furthermore, temperature
we performed references.to
an experiment
verify whether the magnitude of the tube current and estimated temperature value in
Temperature theMaximum Error Minimum Error Average Estimation Average
X-ray tube change over time using the aforementioned heating method. The results
Reference (K) were
Temperature (K)those
compared with Temperature
obtained from (K) Temperature
the control-based (K) heating
conventional Error (K)
method.
1700 This experiment
23 used an anode voltage
−14 of 15 kV, wherein 1702.1
few X-rays were generated.
2.1 The
1800 25 −22 1806.1 6.1
1900 27 −23 1906.0 6.0
2000 1 −3 2001.0 1.0
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10588 12 of 14

verification was based on two estimated temperatures of 1900 and 1950 K, which were
obtained using an experimental method for the generation of tube currents of 0.5 and 1 mA
at the aforementioned anode voltage. The command currents in the conventional current
control method were maintained at 2.57 and 2.67 A, wherein the filament temperature
estimation result satisfied the relevant temperature. Figures 10 and 11 illustrate the com-
parison experimental results of the tube current and estimated temperature
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 14waveforms at
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 14
1900 and 1950 K, respectively. Temperature heating and convergence were obtained at 5 s
and 4 s, respectively, based on empirical values according to the experimental conditions.
ray tube change over time using the aforementioned heating method. The results were
ray tube change over time using the aforementioned heating method. The results were
Table 2. Comparison of the
compared temperature
with controller
those obtained accuracy
from the for different
control-based temperature
conventional heatingreferences.
method. This
compared with those obtained from the control-based conventional heating method. This
experiment used an anode voltage of 15 kV, wherein few X-rays were generated. The ver-
Temperature experiment
Maximum used an anodeMinimum
Error voltage of 15 kV, whereinAverage
few X-rays were generated. The ver-
ification was based on two estimated Errortemperatures of 1900 and Estimation
1950 K, which were ob-Average
Reference (K) ification
Temperature was based on two estimated temperatures of 1900 and 1950 K, which were Error
ob-
tained using (K)an experimentalTemperature
method for(K) Temperature
the generation (K)
of tube currents of 0.5 and 1 mA (K)
tained using an experimental method for the generation of tube currents of 0.5 and 1 mA
1700 at the 23
aforementioned anode voltage. −14 The command currents in the conventional current 2.1
1702.1
at the aforementioned anode voltage. The command currents in the conventional current
1800 control25method were maintained−at 2.57 and 2.67 A, wherein the filament temperature
control method were maintained at 2.57 and 2.67 A, wherein the filament temperature6.1
22 1806.1
1900 estimation
27 result satisfied the relevant
− 23 temperature. Figures1906.0
10 and 11 illustrate the com- 6.0
estimation result satisfied the relevant temperature. Figures 10 and 11 illustrate the com-
2000 parison1 experimental results of the−tube3 current and estimated temperature waveforms at 1.0
2001.0
parison experimental results of the tube current and estimated temperature waveforms at
2100 1900 and 1950 K, respectively. Temperature
−18
25 1950 K, respectively. Temperature heating and convergence
2102.1 were obtained at 5 2.1
1900 and heating and convergence were obtained at 5
s and 4 s, respectively, based on empirical values according to the experimental conditions.
s and 4 s, respectively, based on empirical values according to the experimental conditions.

Figure
Figure10. Comparison of theofconventional
Comparison and proposed
the conventional methods atmethods
and proposed 1900 K.
Figure 10.
10. Comparison of the conventional and proposed methods at 1900 K. at 1900 K.

Figure 11. Comparison of the conventional and proposed methods at 1950 K.

Figure11.
Figure Comparison
11.Comparison ofconventional
of the the conventional and proposed
and proposed methods atmethods
1950 K. at 1950 K.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10588 13 of 14

In Figures 10 and 11, the estimated average temperature over time has a ripple of
±10 K in comparison with the reference temperature in both methods. However, the
conventional heating method exhibits a maximum temperature increase of 50 K over time.
To confirm the dose reduction effect, first, the average tube current value was obtained in
the period when the tube current flowed. The effect was verified by measuring the dose rate
using Fluke’s 451B-DE-SI-RYR at a distance of 1 m from the X-ray tube. Table 3 summarizes
the results of the comparative analysis of the average current and variations in the estimated
filament temperature over time based on the results depicted in Figures 10 and 11. When
the average current values of the proposed method and existing heating method were
compared, we observed an additional tube current of 17% and 9%, respectively. As listed
in Table 4, the total dose rate value for 4 s reduced to 89% at 1900 K and 94% at 1950 K.
Furthermore, we experimentally verified (Figure 10) that when the filament is heated using
the conventional current control method, the filament temperature changes over time,
resulting in an additional tube current of up to 0.1 mA in comparison with that generated
in the proposed method.

Table 3. Comparison of the conventional and proposed methods in terms of the average tube current.

Estimated Conventional Proposed Method

Ratio (%)
Temperature (K) Method (mA) (mA)
1900 0.543 0.464 117
1950 0.992 0.906 109

Table 4. Comparison of radiation dose rate.

Estimated Conventional Proposed Method

Ratio (%)
Temperature (K) Method (mSv/h) (mSv/h)
1900 867 777 89
1950 1466 1383 94

5. Conclusions
To reduce the variations and maintain a constant level of tube current during the oper-
ation of an X-ray system, we propose a temperature control method based on a filament
temperature estimation method. Owing to the position and operating temperature of the
filament, direct measurement, and control of the heated temperature is difficult. Therefore,
we developed an indirect temperature estimation algorithm based on the change in electri-
cal resistance of tungsten. We performed a comparative verification of both the existing
and proposed heating methods based on the tube current magnitude and temperature
level over time. The results of the indirect temperature estimation algorithm and the ex-
perimental results of the tube current were analyzed. The comparative analysis confirmed
that a change in the filament heating temperature over time between the conventional and
proposed methods differed by up to 50 K. Consequently, an excessive generation of the
tube current of up to 0.1 mA was observed in the existing method, in comparison with that
observed in the proposed method. In addition, when the actual dose rate was measured
through a dose-measuring device, it was confirmed that the amount of dose was reduced
by 6% or 11%, depending on the heating method.
The temperature control proposed in this study is based on the indirect temperature
estimation method, which is a form of constant control at a human-commanded temper-
ature value over a period. However, additional research on the algorithm is required to
generate temperature commands considering user convenience and achieve concurrence
with the output dose rate obtained from the filament X-ray tube.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10588 14 of 14

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.-L.Z. and J.-J.J.; methodology, H.-L.Z.; software, H.-L.Z.
and J.-J.J.; validation, H.-L.Z. and J.-J.J.; formal analysis, J.-J.J.; investigation, H.-L.Z. and J.-J.J.; re-
sources, H.-S.M.; data curation, J.-J.J.; writing—original draft preparation, J.-J.J.; writing—review and
editing, H.-S.M.; visualization, J.-J.J.; supervision, H.-S.M.; project administration, H.-S.M.; funding
acquisition, H.-S.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are
available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Acknowledgments: This study was supported by Konkuk University.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Seibert, J.A. X-ray imaging physics for nuclear medicine technologists. Part 1: Basic principles of X-ray production. J. Nucl. Med.
Technol. 2004, 32, 139–147. [PubMed]
2. Behling, R. X-ray tubes development-IOMP history of medical physics. Hist. Med. Phys. 2018, 1, 7–55.
3. Falavigna, A.; Ramos, M.B.; Wong, C.C.; Barbagallo, G.; Brodk, D.; Al-Mutair, A.; Ghogawala, Z.; Riew, K.D. Commentary:
Worldwide knowledge and attitude of spine surgeons regarding radiation exposure. Neurosurgery 2018, 83, E153–E161. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
4. Mahesh, M. The AAPM/RSNA physics tutorial for residents fluoroscopy: Patient radiation exposure issues 1. Radiographics 2001,
21, 1033–1045. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
5. Bushberg, J.T.; Seibert, J.A.; Leidholdt, E.M., Jr.; Boone, J.M. The Essential Physics of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed.; Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 2001; pp. 97–144.
6. Kim, Y.J.; Maruyama, Y.; Nakaoka, M. Practical evaluations of resonant pole-assisted ZVS-PWM DC/DC converter with series
capacitor-connected transformer parasitic parallel resonant tank. In Proceedings of the Annual IEEE Power Electronics Specialist
Conference, Seattle, WA, USA, 20–24 June 1993.
7. Seo, Y.M.; Byun, M.S.; Hong, S.C. Hybrid type X-ray generator for fluoroscopy X-ray system available in low-capacity AC power
source. In Proceedings of the 9th International Conference Power Electronics, Seoul, Korea, 1–5 June 2015.
8. Villegas, P.J.; Díaz, J.; Pernía, A.M.; Martínez, J.A.; Nuño, F.; Prieto, M.J. Filament power supply for electron beam welding
machine. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2015, 62, 1421–1430. [CrossRef]
9. Sasic, B.; Pindrys, S.; Willsey, J. Functional Role of X-ray Generators in Industrial Applications; Spellman High Voltage Electronics
Corporation: Hauppauge, NY, USA, 2018.
10. Faraj, K.A.; Ali, R.T.; Saeed, A.O. Quality control and radiation dose rates measurement from diagnostic X-ray examination at
different places of hospitals in Sulaimania. Int. J. Recent Res. Appl. Stud. 2013, 16, 62–72.
11. Bruno, A.C.; Mazaro, S.J.; Amaral, L.L.; Rego, E.M.; Oliveira, H.F.; Pavoni, J.F. Biological X-ray irradiator characterization for use
with small animals and cells. Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res. 2017, 50. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
12. Nottingham, W.B. Thermionic Emission; The Research Laboratory of Electronics Massachusetts Institute of Technology: Cambridge,
MA, USA, 1956.
13. Schonenberger, C.; Oberholzer, S. Shot Noise: From Schottky’s Vacuum Tube to Present-Day Quantum Devices. In Fluctuations
and Noise in Materials (Proceedings of SPIE); SPIE: Washington, DC, USA, 2004; p. 5469.
14. Forsythe, W.E.; Watson, E.M. Resistance and radiation of tungsten as a function of temperature. J. Opt. Soc. Am. 1934, 24, 114–118.
[CrossRef]
15. Zerda, T.W. Stefan Boltzmann Lamp 1008523; 3B Scientific Physics: Hamburg, Germany, 2013.
16. Shabalin, I.L. Ultra High Temperature Materials; Springer: Heidelberg, Germany, 2014; pp. 237–315.
17. Cezairliyan, A.; McClure, J.L. High speed (subsecond) measurement of heat capacity, electrical resistivity, and thermal radiation
properties of tungsten in the range 2000 to 3600 K. J. Res. Nat. Bur. Stand. 1971, 75, 283–290. [CrossRef]
18. Tanabe, T.; Eamchotchawalit, C.; Busabok, C.; Taweethavorn, S.; Fujitsuka, M.; Shikama, T. Temperature dependence of thermal
conductivity in W and W–Re alloys from 300 to 1000 K. Mater. Lett. 2003, 57, 2950–2953. [CrossRef]
19. Borgea, S.; Campbell, N.; Gomes, A.; Raszkowski, A.M.; Rook, J.W.; Sanderud, A.; Vallinga, A.; Vouillamoz, A.; Buissink, C.
Experimental article—Maintaining image quality for pediatric chest CTs while lowering dose: FBP versus SAFIRE. Reconstruction
in CT. In Proceedings of the OPTIMAX 2014: Radiation Dose and Image Quality Optimisation in Medical Imaging, Portugal,
Lisbon, 1–31 August 2014; pp. 16–20, ISBN 978-1-907842-60-3.
20. Chondrakis, N.G.; Topalis, F.V. Evaluation of heat transfer coefficient of tungsten filaments at low pressures and high temperatures.
Appl. Therm. Eng. 2010, 31, 258–267. [CrossRef]
21. Mortimer, G.W. Real-time measurement of dynamic filament resistance. J. Illum. Eng. Soc. 1998, 27, 22–28. [CrossRef]