Module7c
Module7c
Structure
7.1 Introduction
Objectives
7.10 Summary
7.11 Key Words
7.12 Answers to SAQ’s
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Convective heat transfer or, simply, convection is the study of heat transport processes
effected by the flow of fluids. Convective heat transfer has grown to the status of a
contemporary science because of man’s desire to understand and predict the extent to
which a fluid will act as “carrier” or “conveyer belt” for energy and matter. It is clearly a
field at the interface between heat transfer and fluid mechanics. For this study of
convective heat transfer problems must rest on a solid understanding of basic heat
transfer and fluid mechanics principles.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
understand the mechanism of heat transfer by convection,
classify various convective heat transfer processes,
understand velocity and temperature boundary layers,
derive the governing equations such as continuity, momentum and energy
equations,
5
Convection appreciate importance of similarity principle and non dimensional numbers,
and
apply dimensional analysis to find correlation of different variables.
Experience shows that in order to maintain the velocity U 0 of the upper plate a force is
necessary, and this force is directly proportional to velocity U 0 and inversely
proportional to the distance S. The force per unit area of the plate is equal to the shear
stress . Therefore,
U0
. . . (7.1)
S
U0
or . . . (7.2)
S
6
where is the constant of proportionality. Convection Heat
Transfer
Moving
Uo
y
S
Stationary
The fluid layers immediately adjacent to the two plates possess velocities equal to those
of the plates, namely U 0 and zero, respectively, while in the rest of the fluid the velocity
varies in a linear manner. Here is a property of the fluid, called dynamic or absolute
viscosity. Phenomenological law represented by Eq. (7.2) is known Newton’s law of
viscosity. The fluids obeying this law are known as Newtonian fluids, as mentioned
earlier. Nonviscous or inviscid fluids are known as perfect or ideal fluids.
A more general form of Newton’s law is
du
. . . (7.3)
dy
du
where is the velocity gradient at the wall (y = 0) as shown in Figure 7.2. When a
dy
fluid flows over a solid surface, there is a stagnant film immediately adjacent to the wall
where the fluid velocity is zero and through which heat is conducted.
Fluid flow
T
U y y 0
y
U(y) Surface of plate
T(y)
qc T Tw
Heat flow
Figure 7.2 : Velocity and Temperature Distribution in Laminar Forced Convection Flow
Over a Heated Flat Plate at Temperature TW
In an elastic solid, shear stress is proportional to the shear strain. In a viscous fluid, shear
N ms NS
stress is proportional to the rate of shear strain. The dimension of is 2
. or .
m m m2
kgm s kg dynes
It is also 2
. 2 or . In cgs units, it is , which was called “poise” after the
s m ms cm 2
French physicist L.J.M. Poiseuille. However, it used to be expressed in centipoises (cp).
The viscosity of a liquid is much larger than that of a gas, i.e. liq gas . As temperature
increases, the viscosity of a liquid decreases, because of the decrease of cohesive forces
between the molecules as the liquid becomes lighter. But as temperature increases, the
viscosity of a gas increases, because the molecules travel faster as a result of which there
is increase in the transfer of molecular momentum. 7
Convection There is another frequently used property, the kinematic viscosity, v, defined as
v . . . (7.4)
kgm3
The dimension of is or m2/s. It is also called momentum diffusivity.
mskg
Let us assume that some fluid is flowing over a solid surface as shown in Figure 7.3(a).
If we imagine a curve in the fluid, the tangent at every point of which indicates the
direction of the velocity of the fluid particle, then the curve is known as a streamline.
When one streamline slides smoothly over another streamline, and if this is maintained
in the entire flow is known as laminar. When there is transverse flow of fluid particles
and streamlines are interwoven with one another, the flow is known as turbulent as
shown in Figure 7.3(b).
Streamlines
(a)
Smoke
Turbulent Flow
Laminar Flow
(b)
Figure 7.3 : (a) Laminar flow, (b) Laminar and Turbulent Flow
It was the British scientist Osborne Reynolds who first differentiated these two types of
flow in a series of experiments conducted in 1883. From various experiments on the
flows of fluids through pipes, Reynolds discovered that the absolute viscosity , the
mass density of the fluid , and the diameter of the pipe D are the three other factors
besides the velocity of the fluid, controlling the transition from laminar to turbulent flow.
The results were confirmed by various experiments of French scientist M. Couette in
1890. Reynolds and Couette arranged the four quantities in a dimensionless form, which
is called the Reynolds number ( Re ) in honour of Osborne Reynolds. It is defined as
u m D um D
Re . . . (7.5)
v
where um is the mean velocity of the fluid, = absolute viscosity, = mass density,
U
y
U U Surface
of plate
Viscous
sublayer
x
x=o U
du
dy
This distance from the wall , is called the boundary layer thickness where there is
velocity gradient and above which velocity is uniform and there is no viscous effect.
Viscosity effect is thus confined only in the boundary layer, and the main flow outside
the boundary layer, called the potential flow, is considered frictionless, where for each
streamline Bernoulli equation applies.
In the flow of a fluid over a flat plate held parallel to the direction of flow (Figure 7.4),
the vertical scale is purposely enlarged in order to show the detail of the flow pattern.
When the fluid passes the leading edge of the plate, the velocity gradient and the viscous
boundary shear are high. The fluid is moving in the laminar regime, and the boundary
layer is thin. This is called laminar boundary layer. As the fluid travels further down
stream along the plate, the retardation of fluid flow progresses due to viscous shear, and
the boundary layer grows in thickness. As a result the velocity gradient gradually
decreases. Meanwhile the boundary shear is reduced as the thickness increases. When
the boundary layer becomes thick enough, the particles begin to move out of the smooth
layers or laminae, the laminar motion becomes unstable, and finally the flow becomes
turbulent. However, under the turbulent boundary layer, there is still a thin layer of fluid
immediately next to the solid boundary, and this is still flowing in the laminar pattern.
This is called the laminar sublayer. The layer of transition from the laminar sublayer to
the turbulent layer is called the buffer layer. Since a laminar boundary layer cannot
suddenly change into a turbulent one, a transition zone exists between them.
The behaviour of flow in the boundary layer with the distance x from the leading edge is
governed by the magnitude of Reynolds number given by
9
Convection u x
Re x . . . (7.6)
v
where u is the free-stream velocity, x is the distance from leading edge and is the
kinematic viscosity.
The boundary layer growth for flow over a flat plate is shown in Figure.7.5.
The orderly motion of fluid continues along the plate until a critical distance is reached
or Reynolds number attains a critical value R exc , when fluid eddies begin to form
characterizing the end of the laminar boundary layer and the beginning of transition from
the laminar to turbulent boundary layer. This value of critical Reynolds number for flow
over a flat plate is
u xC 5
Re x 5 × 10 . . . (7.7)
v
Turbulent layer
0 xc Buffer
(x)
layer
uxc Boundary Viscous
Rcc v
sublayer
Layer thickness
Figure 7.5 : Boundary Layer Growth for Flow over a Flat Plate
This critical value, however, strongly depends on the surface roughness and the
turbulence level of the free stream. For example, with large disturbances in the free
stream, the transition may begin at a Reynolds number as low as 105 , and for flows
which are free from disturbances, it may not start until a Reynolds number of 106 or
more.
The boundary layer concept for flow over a curved body is illustrated in Figure 7.6.
Here, the x-coordinate is measured along the curved surface of the body. By starting
from the stagnation point and at each x -location, the y-coordinate is measured normal to
the surface of the body. The free-stream velocity u x is not constant, but varies with
distance x along the curved surface. The boundary layer thickness x increases with
distance x along the surface. However, because of the curvature of the surface, after
u
some distance x, the velocity profile u (x, y) exhibits a point of inflection, i.e.
y
becomes zero at the wall surface. Beyond the point of inflection, the flow reversal takes
place, and the boundary layer is said to be detached from the surface. Beyond the point
of flow reversal, the flow patterns are complicated and the boundary layer analysis does
not hold good.
Unseparated
flow u
Boundary layer
u
y
u (x)
u u
Point of x
inflection
x Separated
10 y u
0 flow
y y 0
Convection Heat
Transfer
(a)
Edge of
Boundary layer
Reverse flow
Separation
(b)
Figure 7.6 : Boundary Layer Growth for Flow Along (a) Curved Body and (b) Circular Cylinder
As shown in Figure.7.6, if a line 1-1 is drawn in the boundary layer and parallel to the
boundary surface so that the area 234 = area 256, the distance between the line 1-1 and
the boundary line is called the displacement thickness . Here represents the
distance by which an equivalent uniform stream would have to be displaced from the
surface to give the same volume flow of the fluid.
Vol. flow
u u
3
(x)
5
1 1
6 2 4
* *
1 u
u u u d y 1
0 0 u
dy
. . . (7.9)
u2
x Cf . . . (7.11)
x
2 11
Convection Thus knowing the drag coefficient, one can calculate the drag force exerted by the fluid
flowing over the flat plate. From Eq. (7.10) and (7.11), we have
2v u
C fx . . . (7.12)
u2 y y 0
Thus the total drag coefficient C f x can be determined from Eq. (7.12) if the velocity
profile u (x, y) in the boundary layer is known. The mean value of the drag coefficient
over the plate length L is
L
1
L 0 x
Cf Cf dx . . . (7.13)
Then the drag force F acting on the plate of length L and width b is equal to
u2
F bLC f . . . (7.14)
2
7.3.3 Thermal Boundary Layer
Analogous to the concept of velocity boundary layer, one can visualise the development
of a thermal boundary layer with temperature varying from Tw to T in the boundary
layer thickness t as shown in Figure 7.8. Let us consider that a fluid at a uniform
temperature T
u
T
u
q’’ T T
y
T(y) T(y)
u x
T Tw
Velocity boundary layer
T = Thermal boundary layer
Figure 7.8 : Growth of Velocity and Thermal Boundary Layers in Flow over
a Flat Surface of Arbitrary Shape
The relative thickness of the thermal boundary layer t x and the velocity boundary
layer x depend on the Prandtl number of the fluid. For fluids having Pr = 1,
t x = x . For fluids having Pr <<1, such as liquid metals, t >> , whereas for
fluids having Pr >>1, t << .
12
Convection Heat
7.4 HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT Transfer
If the temperature profile T (x, y) in the thermal boundary layer is known, then the heat
flux
T
q x k . . . (7.16)
y y 0
where k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid. In practice, a local heat transfer
coefficient h (x) is defined as
q x hx Tw T . . . (7.17)
which, as we saw before, is the Newton’s law of cooling. From Eqs. (7.16) and (7.17),
T y y 0
hx k k . . . (7.18)
T Tw y y 0
The local heat transfer coefficient hx can be determined by knowing the dimensionless
temperature distribution x, y in the thermal boundary layer. It decreases along the
length (Figure 7.9).
hx
hx
x
dx
0 x L
1 L
Figure 7.9 : Mean Heat Transfer Coefficient hm h x dx
L0
The mean heat transfer coefficient as shown in Figure 7.9, over the length L of the plate
is
L
1
L 0
hm hc hx dx . . . (7.19)
The total heat transfer rate Q from the plate of length L and width b is
The transfer of heat from the solid wall to the fluid takes place by a combination of
conduction and mass transport. In laminar flow, heat is transferred by molecular
conduction from streamline to streamline. In turbulent flow, the conduction mechanism
is aided by innumerable eddies which carry lumps of fluid across the streamlines. These
fluid particles act as carriers of energy and transfer energy by mixing with other fluid
particles
T Tw
Q k f A hA Tw T . . . (7.21)
f 13
Convection Since k f of fluids is generally small (expect liquid metals), the rate of heat transfer very
much depends on the rate of mixing of fluid particles. Higher the Reynolds number,
higher will be the rate of mixing, lower the value of t and higher the values of h and Q.
SAQ 2
(a) Explain with the help of a diagram the concept of hydrodynamic and
thermal boundary layer for a laminar flow over a thin flat plate.
(b) What is critical Reynolds number?
(c) What is the physical significance of Prandtl number?
(d) Sketch the hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer for a laminar flow for
a flow over a flat plate for (1) Pr 1 , (2) Pr 1 and (3) Pr 1 .
and M x' u u dx dydz . . . (7.23)
x
v
v dy
y
dx
u
dy u
u + dx
dy
x
dx
Surface of flat plate
pplate (x, y)
M x' M x" u dxdydz . . . (7.24)
x
Similarly, net mass flow in y- and z-directions
M y' M "y v dxdydz . . . (7.25)
y
and M z' M "y w dxdydz . . . (7.26)
y
Net rate of mass accumulation within the control volume
dxdydz . . . (7.27)
14 t
Convection Heat
u v w dxdydz Transfer
x y z
Therefore, div V = 0 . . . (7.28)
t
For steady state,
0 . . . (7.29)
t
div V 0 . . . (7.30)
For an incompressible fluid,
Div V 0 . . . (7.31)
u v w
i.e. 0 . . . (7.32)
x y z
For a two-dimensional flow,
u v
0 . . . (7.33)
x y
7.5.1 Vector Method
Let us consider a fixed control surfaces S enclosing a volume V as shown in Figure 7.11.
S V
dV
dS
m
The rate of accumulation of mass inside S must be equal to the rate of inflow across the
control surface minus the rate of outflow.
Rate of accumulation of mass in the control volume
t
v
dV
S
V dS
div V dV
V
By mass balance,
15
Convection
t
V
dV =
V
div V dV . . . (7.34)
Writing the conservation of mass equation for the differential volume dV with the
integral sign removed
t
dv div V dV . . . (7.35)
Since dV is now independent, it is stuck off both sides of the above equation, and we
obtain
div V 0 . . . (7.36)
t
By expansion of Eq. (7.36)
u v w 0 . . . (7.37)
t x y z
u v w
or u v w 0 . . . (7.38)
t x y z x y z
The expressions u , etc. describe the changes in density suffered by the differential
x
element as a result of displacements of the type dx = u dt, etc. to a new position, at which
the density has a different local value. The expressions are said to denote the
components of the convection rate of change of density, while the term denotes the
t
local time rate of changes of density. The sum of local and convective components gives
D
the total or “substantial” rate of change of density, for which the notation is usually
Dt
employed. Thus,
D
u v w . . . (7.39)
Dt t x y z
The continuity equation may be written as
D u v w
0 . . . (7.40)
Dt x y z
D
or div V . . . (7.41)
Dt
Similarly, if the velocity u u x, y, z , t , then the acceleration of the fluid particle is
Du u x u y u z u
dt x t y t z t t
u u u u
=u v w + . . . (7.42)
x y z t
Localdifferential
Convectivedifferential
SAQ 3
(a) Derive the continuity equation for a 2-D incompressible flow
(b) What is the significance of the continuity equation?
16
7.5.2 Conservation of Momentum Equations Convection Heat
Transfer
The conservation of momentum equation is obtained from application of Newton’s
second law of motion to the element. Let us consider in the flow of a fluid within the
laminar boundary layer an elementary parallelepiped of sides dx, dy and dz as shown in
Figure 7.12.
p
p+ dy
y y
u
+ d
u + du + d
dy
u p
p p+ dx
gx x
dy
y
gy
dz
x
dx dx
x
z
p
Figure 7.12 L: Forces Acting on a Fluid Element
Three forces act on the element: inertia force, pressure force and viscous or friction
force.
Inertia Force
Fg g x dx dy dz . . . (7.43)
Pressure Force
p
Fp p dy dz p dx dy dz
x
p
dx dy dz . . . (7.44)
x
Viscous Force
The velocity of fluid particles at the bottom surface of the element is less than that
of the particles within the element. Therefore, the shear stress will develop which
would tend to oppose the flow and the shear force is dx dz. On the top surface
of the element the particles above (y + dy) move at a velocity exceeding that of the
particles within the element and hence would tend to accelerate and the shear
force would be
dy dxdz
y
Therefore, the net shear force is dx dy dz
y
u
or F dx dy dz dx dy dz
y y y
2u
dx dy dz . . . (7.45)
y 2 17
Convection This applies only to one-dimensional flow. In three dimensions,
2u 2u 2u
F 2 2 2 dx dy dz
x y z
2 u dx dy dz . . . (7.46)
Adding Eqs. (7.43), (7.44) and (7.45), the x-axis component of the resultant of all
the forces acting upon the considered elemental volume.
p
Fx Fg Fp F g x dv dv 2 u dv . . . (7.47)
v
where dv = dx dy dz
p
or Fx g x 2 u dv . . . (7.48)
x
By Newton’s second law of motion
Du p
Fx dv gx 2 u dv . . . (7.49)
Dt x
Du p
or gx 2 u . . . (7.50)
Dt x
The components of the resultant force along the y- and z-directions can similarly
be obtained
Dv p
gy 2 v . . . (7.51)
Dt y
Dw p
gz 2 w . . . (7.52)
Dt z
This system of three Eqs. (7.50)-(7.52) is known as Navier-Stokes differential
equation for incompressible viscous liquids. For compressible fluids it can be
shown as
Du p 1
gx 2 u div V
Dt x 3 x
p 1
gx 2u divV . . . (7.53)
x 3 x
Dv p 1
gy 2v divV . . . (7.54)
Dt y 3 y
Dw p 1
gz 2 w divV . . . (7.55)
Dt z 3 z
DV 1
or G grad p ( 2 V grad div V ) . . . (7.56)
Dt 3
For incompressible fluids
Div V 0 . . . (7.57)
The Navier-Stokes equations, together with the continuity equation, form the basis
of the mechanics of viscous fluids. They together represent four equations for the
18
four unknowns u, v, w and p. In the case of compressible fluids we encounter an Convection Heat
additional unknown , but we also have at our disposal the equation of state. Transfer
SAQ 4
Derive the momentum equation of a 2D incompressible flow. Explain the different
terms involved with the final equations.
7.5.3 Conservation of Energy Equation
We will now device the conservation of energy applied to the fluid element. The
equation governing the conduction of heat in a stationary medium, in the absence of heat
sources, is
T
2 T . . . (7.58)
t
T
where is the local differential or the rate of change of temperature at a point which
t
is stationary.
If the medium is in motion, as in the case of a fluid, the total or substantial rate of change
of temperature is required, which is given below.
DT T T T T
u v z
Dt t x y z
2T 2T 2T
2T 2 2 2 . . . (7.59)
x y z
In presence of large pressure gradients or for fluids moving at high velocities, two
additional terms must be included to account for the compression work and for the
dissipation of energy due to friction. The complete energy equation for a compressible
fluid may thus be written as
DT DP
cp k 2T V . . . (7.60)
Dt Dt
where V denotes the dissipation function, first used by Lord Rayleigh, and given by
u 2 v 2 w 2 u v 2
V 2
x y z y x
2
v w u w 2
2
divV . . . (7.61)
z y z x 3
The effect of viscous dissipation can be significant if the fluid is very viscous, as in
journal bearings, or if the fluid shear rate is very high. From Eq. (7.59), the following
two-dimensional expression for the energy equation without dissipation is obtained
T T 2T 2T
u v 2 2 . . . (7.62)
x y x y
T T
Since the boundary layer is quite thin, under normal conditions . Also the
y x
pressure term in the momentum equation, Eq. (7.50), is zero for flow over a flat plate,
u
since 0 . Eq. (7.50) thus reduces to
x
19
Convection
u u 2u 2v
u v v 2 2 . . . (7.63)
x y y y
Then the similarity between the momentum and energy equations becomes apparent, as
given below
u u 2u
u v v 2 . . . (7.64)
x y y
T T 2T
and u v 2 . . . (7.65)
x y y
Where v is the kinematic or momentum diffusivity and is the thermal diffusivity, the
dimensions of both being m2/s. The ratio of these two transport properties is called the
Prandtl number Pr. Therefore,
v c p c p
Pr . . . (7.66)
k k
If v , then Pr = 1, and the momentum and energy equations are identical. For this
condition, nondimensional solutions of u (y) and T (y) are identical if the boundary
conditions are similar. Thus it is apparent that the Prandtl number controls the relation
between the velocity and temperature distributions.
The conditions which are important to study in the analysis of a heat transfer process are
Geometric Conditions
Round, rectangular, smooth or rough.
Physical Conditions
Properties of the fluid like oil, water, air, etc. c p , , k and .
Boundary Conditions
Velocity and temperature distribution.
Time Condition
Steady, unsteady, periodic, etc.
Any flow or heat transfer problem can be solved by solving mass, momentum and energy
equations with appropriate boundary conditions, but in actual cases we often find
analytical solutions very complex and difficult. Broad simplifying assumptions are
frequently needed to arrive at a solution, and the experimental results vary widely from
the theoretical data.
SAQ 5
Derive the energy equation and explain the significance of different terms
appearing in the final equation.
20
11 12 13 Convection Heat
C , similarity constant Transfer
11' 1'2 13'
The concept of physical similarity demands in addition to the above that all the other
physical quantities involved in a given pair of systems, e.g. force, time intervals,
velocities and temperatures, are respectively proportional to one another. For two similar
systems
2 T
f , 2 f , 2 fT . . . (7.67)
1 1 T1
and so on,
l2
l3
l2 l3
l1 l1
where f , f and fT are similarity parameters for density, viscosity and temperature
respectively.
The physical laws discovered on the basis of the study of a model would apply not only
to the original system, but also to an infinite number of other systems, provided they are
physically similar to the model.
The methods of similarity allow us to generalize the experimental results with the aid of
model rules. These model rules help to establish dimensionless parameters which must
have the same values for both the model and the original system.
By Newton’s laws of motion,
mu
P mf . . . (7.68)
t
m1u1
so that P1 . . . (7.69)
t1
m2 u2
and P2 . . . (7.70)
t2
P2 m2 u2 t1
. . . (7.71)
P1 m1 u1 t2
fu
or f p fm . . . (7.72)
ft
f p ft Pt Pt
so that 1 1
2 2 Ne . . . (7.73)
fm fu m1u1 m2 u2
where Ne Newton number.
The dimensioned quantities are grouped together to yield meaningful dimensionless
parameters.
21
Convection
7.7 DERIVATION OF DIMENSIONLESS PARAMETERS
FROM THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
The laws of similarity, as applied to heat transfer, were obtained for the first time by
Nusselt, who derived the dimensionless parameters appropriate to forced and free
convection from the differential equations together with the respective boundary
conditions.
7.7.1 Forced Convection
Let us consider two pipes of different diameters as shown is Figure 7.14, each carrying a
steady flow of a different fluid.
p1
Water
1
p2
Oil
2
22
x-component of the momentum equation Convection Heat
Transfer
u
Forced convection, g 0; Steady state, 0
t
u1 u u
u1 v1 1 w1 1
x1 y1 z1
1 p1 2 u 2 u 2u
v1 21 21 21 . . . (7.78)
1 x1 x1 y1 z1
Energy Equation
T1 T T
u1 v1 1 w1 1
x1 y1 z1
2T 2T 2T
1 21 21 21 . . . (7.79)
x1 y1 z1
We can describe the heat flow at the wall in terms of heat transfer coefficient, and
a mean temperature excess of the fluid m above the measured wall temperature
as shown in Figure 7.15.
T
T T
T
T Tw
q h Tw T k h m . . . (7.80)
t
T Tw
q h Tw T k h m . . . (7.81)
t
q1 h11 k1 1 . . . (7.82)
n1 w
Identical equations and boundary conditions apply to the second pipe except for
the suffix 1 being replaced by 2. We now postulate that the two systems are
physically similar. Thus for length scale, the proportionality factor f L is defined
as
23
Convection L2
fL . . . (7.83)
L1
Similarly, the other proportionality factors are listed below :
For the velocities u, v, w
u2
fu . . . (7.84)
u1
For the pressure p
p2
fp . . . (7.85)
p1
For the density
2
fp . . . (7.86)
1
For the kinematic viscosity
v2
fv . . . (7.87)
v1
For the temperature T and
T2
fT . . . (7.88)
T1
For the thermal diffusivities
2
f . . . (7.89)
1
For the heat transfer coefficients h
h2
fh . . . (7.90)
h1
For the thermal conductivities k
k2
fk . . . (7.91)
k1
If we now introduce these proportionality factors (or similarity constants) into the
equations appropriate to the second pipe and take common factors outside the
brackets, we obtain for the second pipe (putting u2 f u .u1 , T2 fT .T1 , v2 f v .v1
and so on) :
Continuity Equation
x-Momentum Equation
f L2 u1 u u
u1 v1 1 w1 1 . . . (7.93)
f L x1 y1 z1
24
Convection Heat
fp 1 p1 f v f u 2 u1 2 u1 2 u1
2 v1 2 Transfer
fL f 1 x1 fL x1 y12 z12
Energy Equation
fu fT T1 T T
u1 v1 1 w1 1
fL x1 y1 z1
f k fT 1
f h fT h1 m1 k . . . (7.95)
f L n1 w
These Eqs. (7.92)-(7.95) describe the processes in the second pipe, but they
become identical with those of the first pipe Eqs. (7.77)-(7.79) if the following
conditions are satisfied :
fu2 fp f f
v 2u . . . (7.96)
fL fL f fL
f u fT f f
2T . . . (7.97)
fL fL
f k fT
f h fT . . . (7.98)
fL
It may be noticed that the continuity equation yields no condition for the
fu
proportional constants, since the value of is arbitrary. If we now substitute for
fL
the proportionality factors from Eqs. (7.84)-(7.91), we obtain the conditions which
must be satisfied for physical similarity to exist between our two systems and to
permit one system to be considered as a model of the other.
From Eq. (7.96) :
u22 L1 p2 L1 1 v2 u2 L12
. . . (7.99)
u12 L2 p1 L2 2 v1 u1 L22
u2 L2 u1 L1 uL
. . . (7.100)
v2 v1 v
u2 T2 L1 2 T2 L12
. . . (7.102)
u1 T1 L2 1 T1 L22
u2 L2 u1 L1 uL
. . . (7.103)
2 1
From Eq. (7.98) :
25
Convection h2 T2 k 2 T2 L1
. . . (7.104)
h1 T1 k1 T1 L2
h2 L2 h1 L1 hL
. . . (7.105)
k2 k1 k
uL
Re or N Re , Reynolds number
v
uL
Pe or N Pe , Peclet number
hL
Nu or N Nu , Nusselt number
k
( u 2 )
The dimensionless product does not represent a true similarity parameter,
p
since the pressure in a channel with prescribed dimensions and velocities, adjusts
itself to the correct value in accordance with Eq. (7.78). Thus the flow is
determined by the Reynolds number alone, if geometrically similar boundaries are
assumed.
In addition to the three similarity parameters derived above, we may choose to use
any combinations of them, as long as a total number of three independent
parameters is preserved. Thus, for example, the ratio Pe/Re = v / = Pr or N pr ,
Prandtl number is particular useful, because it contains only the properties of the
fluid.
Our original problem is thus solved, since if the three dimensionless parameters
Re, Pr and Nu are equal in both systems, then the two systems are physically
similar and constant properties exist between all quantities concerned. This may
be immediately extended to include all geometrically similar systems (i.e. all
circular pipes) for which the dimensionless parameters have the same values. If we
can obtain the solution for any one system by any means, e.g. empirically, it must
be possible to write this solution in the form
F (Re, Pr, Nu) = 0 . . . (7.106)
and it is valid for all the systems characterized by the same values of the
dimensionless parameters. To obtain an expression for a given variable, for
instance h, from Eq. (7.106), we solve the equation explicitly for the parameter
which contains the variable, i.e. Nu.
Nu = F (Re, Pr) . . . (7.107)
k
or h F (Re, Pr) . . . (7.108)
L
Hence, the heat transfer coefficient may be predicted for all similar systems from a
single model experiment. Eqs. (7.107) and (7.108) also express the fact that the
flow of the fluid is not affected by the heat transfer. The momentum equation
Eq. (7.78) yields as a single dimensionless parameter the Reynolds number.
26
7.7.2 Free Convection Convection Heat
Transfer
Eq. (7.106) is valid for forced convection only. In the case of free convection, the
buoyancy force experienced by a fluid system at a higher temperature, i.e. at a lower
density, than the surrounding fluid must be introduced into the momentum equation as a
body force.
Let us consider, as an example, a vertical wall at a temperature higher than that of the
surrounding fluid as shown in Figure 7.16. The fluid layer heated up by the wall suffers a
decrease in density and as a result experiences an up thrust relative to the surrounding
fluid.
T - T
T
T
1
The change in the specific volume vs with temperature may be expressed in terms
of coefficient of thermal expansion
1 vs
T . . . (7.109)
vs p
We will assume that only density varies with temperature, while other properties
, c , k are still assumed constant. For an ideal gas,
p
pvs RT . . . (7.110)
RT
or vs . . . (7.111)
p
vs R vs
T T T . . . (7.112)
p
1
. . . (7.113)
T 27
Convection ( 0 ) g
Buoyancy force per unit mass .
Now, v v0 1 . . . (7.114)
1 1
1 . . . (7.115)
0
or 0 . . . (7.116)
0 . . . (7.117)
g
Buoyancy force per unit mass is g .
Buoyancy force per unit volume, G g
This is directed upward. By introducing this body force in the momentum equation,
Eq. (7.78),
u1 u u 1 p1
u1 v1 1 w1 1 g 1 1 1
x1 y1 z1 1 x1
2u 2u 2u
v1 21 21 21 . . . (7.118)
x1 y1 z1
The subscript 1 refers to the model of a system, while subscript 2 refers to the system
itself. To describe the system itself, we require, in addition to the proportionality factors
2 g
of Eqs. (7.84)-(7.91), two more such factors defined by f and f g 2 . In
1 g1
accordance with the procedure adopted for forced convection earlier, we obtain the
following condition
fu2 fp f f
f g fT f v 2u . . . (7.119)
fL fL f fL
Since the pressure differences in a free convection flow are generally negligible, the
second term of Eq. (7.119) does not yield any dimensionless parameter. Unlike forced
convection there exists no prescribed velocity. The fluid velocity is zero both at the plate
and at a large distance from it, outside the boundary layer. The ratio fu is thus largely
meaningless and may be eliminated. For Eq. (7.119),
fu2 f f
f g fT f v 2u . . . (7.120)
fL fL
f v2
f g fT f . . . (7.121)
f L3
g 2 2 2 v22 L13
. . . (7.122)
g1 1 1 v12 L32
28
Convection Heat
g 2 2 2 L32 g1 11 L13 g L3
Gr . . . (7.123) Transfer
v22 v12 v2
g L3
where Gr = Grashof number = .
v2
Eqs. (7.97) and (7.98) representing energy and heat transfer equations are equally valid
for free convection.
f u fT f f
2T . . . (7.124)
fL fL
f k fT
and f h fT . . . (7.125)
fL
fv
Substituting f u in the first equation,
fL
f v fT f f
2
2T . . . (7.126)
fL fL
f v f . . . (7.127)
v2 2
or . . . (7.128)
v1 1
v2 v1 v
Pr . . . (7.129)
2 1
f k fT
Again, f h fT . . . (7.130)
fL
hL
which yields Nu, the Nusselt number. Thus, the heat transfer in free convection
k
can be described by the equation
T 2T
2 . . . (7.132)
t x
For physical similarity between a system and its model, we have to introduce an
t2
additional proportionality factor for time f t . Following the same procedure, we
t1
obtain
fT f f
2T . . . (7.133)
ft fL
29
Convection t
constant . . . (7.134)
L2
It is the Fourier number F0 , which is often referred to as dimensionless time.
SAQ 6
(a) Define Nusselt number, Grashof number and Prandtl Number.
(b) What is the principle of similarity?
The methods of dimensional analysis are founded upon the principle of dimensional
homogeneity, which states that all equations describing the behaviour of physical
systems, must be dimensionally consistent, i.e. each term with reference to a given set of
fundamental dimensions must have the same dimensions. When the equations governing
a process are known and solvable, dimensional analysis suggests logical grouping of 31
Convection quantities for presenting the results. When the mathematical equations governing certain
processes are unknown or too complex, dimensional analysis lays the foundation of an
efficient experimental program for obtaining the results, by reducing the number of
variables requiring investigation and by indicating a possible form of the semi-empirical
correlations that may be formulated. It should be borne in mind that dimensional analysis
by itself cannot provide quantitative answers, and thus cannot be a substitute for the
exact or the approximate mathematical solutions. It is nevertheless an important tool to
learn to use, especially in instances when mathematical analysis is impractical or when
some rapid, qualitative answers are needed.
Table 7.1 : Important Heat Transfer Physical Quantities and their Dimensions
Length L,x,y L
Time t t
Mass M M
2
Force F ML t
Temperature T T
2 2
Heat transfer Q ML t
Velocity u , v, u Lt
1
Acceleration a,g 2
LT
2 2
Work W ML t
2 1
Pressure p Mt L
Density ML
3
Enthalpy h L2t 2
Kinematic
viscosity
v L2 t 1
Thermal 3
conductivity
k ML t T 1
Thermal
L2 t 1
diffusivity
Thermal 3 1 2
resistance
R Tt M L
Coefficient of
T 1
expansion
32
Convection Heat
Surface tension Mt
2
Transfer
Shear stress ML t
1 2
Heat transfer 3 1
coefficient
h Mt T
1
Mass flow rate m Mt
The application of similarity principle to the continuity, momentum and energy
equations for identifying the dimensionless parameters that govern the concerned
process, which was discussed earlier, is also based on the principle of dimensional
homogeneity. However, when the governing equations of a problem are unknown, an
alternate approach in the application of dimensional analysis is necessary. At the very
start, it is required to know, or more typically to guess, the independent variables that
determine the behaviour of a particular dependent variables of interest. These can
usually be found by logic or intuition developed from previous experiences with
problems of a similar nature, but there is no way to ensure that all essential quantities
have been included or not. Rayleigh first used this method and the rules of algebra to
combine the many variables of a problem into dimensionless groups. We are providing
in the next section two examples of application of Rayleigh’s method.
7.9.1 Rayleigh’s Methods
Method-I
Let us consider the frictional resistance of fluid flow per unit area of the inside
surface of the pipe. A reasonable assumption can be made that the resistance
which causes pressure drop of the fluid p is a function of tube diameter (D),
fluid density , fluid velocity (u) and fluid viscosity , or
p f [u , D , , ] . . . (7.135)
Let p Cu a Db c d . . . (7.136)
where C is a dimensionless constant. The dimensional equation of the above
expression in fundamental dimensions M, L and t are
MLt 2
L ML ML
a c d
Lt 1 b 3 1 1
t . . . (7.137)
L2
ML1t 2 La b 3c d t a d M c d . . . (7.138)
For the homogeneity of
M : 1 = c + d,
L : 1 = a + b – 3 c – d and,
t : 2 = a – d.
On solving these equations we have b = d, c = 1 – d and a = 2 – d.
p Cu 2 d D d 1 d d
d
u2
C u 2
C . . . (7.139)
uD Re dD
uD
where Re d Reynolds number. The values of constants C and D have to
be determined by experiments.
Method-II
Let us consider forced convection heat transfer between a fluid flowing through a
pipe and its wall. We enlist the variables pertinent to the phenomenon by logic or 33
Convection intuition and group them into dimensionless parameters. Let us assume that the
heat transfer coefficient h is a function of pipe diameter (D), fluid velocity (u), and
the fluid properties of density , viscosity , thermal conductivity (k) and
specific heat c p , or
h f D, u , , , k , c p . . . (7.140)
h BD a u b c d k e c pf . . . (7.141)
where B is a constant. Expressing the quantities in terms of fundamental
dimensions M, L, t and T
ML ML
b c d
Mt 3T 1 BLa Lt 1 3 1 1
t
MLt L t
e f
3
T 1 2 2
T 1 . . . (7.142)
uD cp
where Re d Reynolds number, Pr = = Prandtl number and
k
hD
Nud Nusselt number. Thus, in forced convection heat transfer, Nusselt
k
number is a function of Reynolds number and Prandtl number. The constants B, c
and f have to be evaluated from the experimental data.
SAQ 7
(a) Explain Rayleigh’s method.
(b) How the Rayleigh’s method is applied in deriving the functional
relationship of pressure drop of a fluid per unit area of the inside surface of
a pipe?
(c) Show by Rayleigh’s method that in forced convection heat transfer the
Nusselt number is a function of Reynolds number and Prandtl number.
7.9.2 Buckingham -Theorem
A simple and more systematic way of determining the dimensionless groups was
suggested by Buckingham and has come to be known as “pi-theorem”. If a small number
of physical quantities is involved, the Rayleigh method is simpler. But if the number of
physical quantities increases beyond a given limit, the procedure is tedious, and the
pi-theorem may be used advantageously. More physical quantities simply mean a few
more -terms. Each -term can be solved exactly the same way as in the case of fewer
34
physical quantities. According to the Buckingham -theorem, any physical equation Convection Heat
Transfer
may be described by
Q1 , Q2 , Q3 ,..., Qm 0 . . . (7.147)
1 , 2 , 3 ..., m n . . . (7.148)
u , D, , , p 0 . . . (7.149)
There are five variables, or m = 5. Let us suppose that the three fundamental
dimensions are M, L and t, or n = 3. Therefore, the number of dimensionless
-terms = m – n = 5 – 3 = 2. Therefore, Eq. (7.149) can be written as
1 , 2 0 . . . (7.150)
Let 1 a ub Dc p . . . (7.151)
and 2 eu f D g . . . (7.152)
1 ML3 Lt 1 L Mt 2 L2
a b c
Therefore, . . . (7.153)
M 0 L0 t 0 M a 1 L3a b c 2 t b 2 . . . (7.154)
In order to make 1 dimensionless, the exponents of M, L and t must all be
equal to zero. For dimensionless homogeneity
a 1 0
3a b c 2 0
b20
On solving we obtain a 1, b 2, c 1 .
pD
1 1u 2 Dp . . . (7.155)
u2
2 ML3 Lt 1 L ML
e f
g 1 1
Similarly, t . . . (7.156)
35
Convection or M 0 L0 t 0 M e 1 L3e f g 1t f 1
e 1 0
3e f g 1 0
f 1 0
e 1, f 1, g 1
or 2 1u 1 D 1 . . . (7.157)
Du
Therefore, Eq. (7.150) can be written as
pD
, 0 . . . (7.158)
u Du
2
It can be written as
pD 1
Re d . . . (7.159)
u2 2
Du
where Re d
u2
or p Re d . . . (7.160)
2D
If the length of the pipe is L, the total pressure drop is
fL u 2
p1 p2 pL . . . (7.161)
D 2
where f is the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor for a smooth pipe, which is
a function of Reynolds number, i.e. f Re d .
h f D, , u , , c p , k . . . (7.162)
or, D, , u , , c p , k , h 0 . . . (7.163)
, D, u , c p , , k , h 0 . . . (7.165)
M 0 L0 t 0T 0 ML1t 1 ( ML3 ) a L Lt 1
b
L t
c 2 2
T 1 d
L Lt L t
a1 b1 c1 d1
MLt 3T 1 ML3 1 2 2
T 1 . . . (7.169)
3 h a D b u c c dp
2 2 2 2
ML L Lt L t
a2 b2 c2 d2
Mt 3T 1 3 1 2 2
T 1 . . . (7.172)
3a 2 b2 c 2 2d 2 0
3 c 2 2d 2 0
1 d2 0
On solving, a2 1 b2 0 c2 1 d 2 1
h
3 h 1 D 0 u 1c p1 . . . (7.174)
cpu
1 , 2 , 3 0 . . . (7.175)
It can be written as
37
Convection 3 B 1m 2n . . . (7.176)
m n
h k
B . . . (7.177)
cpu Du duc p
m n
hD k k
. B . . . (7.178)
k c p uD Du Duc p
m n 1
hD k
B
Du c
k p Du
m n 1 1 n
Du cp
B . . . (7.179)
k
or, Nud B Re ad Pr b . . . (7.180)
, L, , k , c p , g , h 0 . . . (7.181)
1 , 2 , 3 0 . . . (7.182)
Then, 1 a Lb c k d g
ML3 L ML
a b 1 1 c
t MLt 3
T 1 Lt
d 2
M 0 L0 t 0T 0 . . . (7.183)
acd 0
3a b c d 1 0
c 3d 2 0
d 0
On solving we get a 2, b 3, c 2 and d 0
38
Convection Heat
g L3 2
1 2 L3 2 k 0 g . . . (7.184) Transfer
2
2 a Lb m c k d c P
1 1 1 1
ML3 L ML
a1 b1 1 1 c1
t MLt 3
T 1 L t
d1 2 2
T 1
M a1 c1 d1 L3a1 b1 c1 d1 2 t c1 3d1 2 T d 1
M 0 L0 t 0T 0 . . . (7.185)
a1 c1 d 1 0
3a1 b1 c1 d 1 2 0
c1 3d 1 2 0
d1 1 0
Solving a1 0, b1 0, c1 0 and d1 1.
cP
2 0 L0 1 k 1cP . . . (7.186)
k
3 a Lb c k d h
2 2 2 2
ML3 L ML
a2 b2
t MLt
1 1 c2 3
T 1 Mt
d2 3
T 1
M a2 c 2 d 2 1 L3a2 b2 c2 d 2 t c2 3d 2 3T d 2 1
M 0 L0 t 0T 0 . . . (7.187)
a 2 c2 d 2 1 0
3a 2 b2 c 2 d 2 0
c 2 3d 2 3 0
d2 1 0
Solving, a2 0, b2 1, c2 0 and d 2 1.
Table 7.2 : Dimensionless Group for Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow
Group Definition Physical Interpretation
cP v
Prandtl Number (Pr) Ratio of molecular momentum diffusivity
k
Rayleigh Number (Ra) GrL Pr Product of Grashof and Prandtl numbers
UxL
Reynolds Number Re L Ratio of inertia to viscous forces
v
hc Nu L
Stanton Number U C P Re L Pr Dimensionless heat transfer coefficient
39
Convection hL
3 0 L1 0 k 1h . . . (7.188)
k
Therefore, Eq. (7.182) becomes
g L3 2 c p hL
, , 0 . . . (7.189)
2 k k
a b
hL g L3 c p
or, B 2 . . . (7.190)
k V k
g L3
where Gr = Grashof number =
V2
cp
Pr = Prandtl number =
k
Nu = Nusselt number = (hL)/k
a
Nu = BG r P r a . . . (7.191)
Dimensionless analyses have been performed on many heat transfer
systems, and Table 7.2 summarizes the most important dimensionless
groups used in design.
SAQ 8
(a) State Buckingham theorem.
(b) What are the merits and demerits of Buckingham theorem.
(c) What are the repeating variables? How are these chosen?
Example 7.1
An application involving exact solution of momentum and energy equations is met
within a situation called Coquette flow with heat transfer. Coquette flow provides
a simple model for flow between two parallel plates. The lower plate is stationary
and the upper plate at a distance L is moving with a velocity U. the lower and
upper plates are maintained at uniform temperatures T0 and TL respectively. This
model can be applied to the case of a shaft rotating in its stationary bearing with a
heavy lubricating oil in the clearance. If the clearance is small, the situation can be
considered as that of flow between two parallel plates. Find also the surface heat
fluxes to the plates.
Solution
With reference to Figure 7.17 given below, the continuity equation for steady-state
in compressible flow
Moving plate
u
TL
= 0, W = L
u=0
T0
Stationary plate
Figure 7.17
40
u Convection Heat
0 or u f x Transfer
x
The velocity does not vary with x.
The x-momentum equation.
2u 2u 2 u
or 0
x 2 y 2 x 2
2u
0
y 2
u
C1 y
y
or, u C1 y C2, which is linear,
At y 0, u 0,
C2 0
y L, u U U C1 L or C1 U / L
The velocity distribution in Couette flow is then given by
U
u y y
L
u y
or,
U L
The energy equation can be written as
DT
k 2T c p
Dt
2
2T u T T T T
k cp u v w
y 2
y t x y z
2
2T U
k 0
y 2
L
2
d 2T U
2
dy kL
2
dT U
y C3
dy kL
2
U
T y C3 y C4
2
2k L
At y 0, T T0 ,
C4 T0
At y L, T TL ,
2
U
TL L C3 L T0
2
2k L 41
Convection
TL T0 U 2
C3
L 2k L
2
U TL T0 U2
T y y
2
y y T0
2k L L 2k L
y y2 y
or T y T0 U 2 2 TL T0
2k L L L
In dimensionless form,
T y T0 y 2 y/L y /L
U
2 2
TL T0 L 2k TL T0
y U 2 y
1 1
L 2k TL T0 L
y cp
Let , Pr ,
L k
U2
E = Eckert number =
c p TL T0
T y T0 1
and ; 1 Pr .E 1
TL T0 2
This is the temperature distribution in Couette flow. Because of viscous
dissipation, the maximum temperature occurs in the fluid and heat transfer occurs
both to the hot and cold plates. For Pr . E = 0, there is no flow (U = 0) and hence
there is no viscous dissipation, and the temperature distribution is linear. The
surface heat fluxes can be obtained by Fourier’s law:
dT 1 1 T T
q y k k U 2 2 2 y L 0
dy 2k L L L
U2 TL T0 k U 2 k
q y 0 k TL T0 Bottom plate
2k L L 2L L
U 2
k U 2 k
qyL k L 0
T T TL T0 Top plate
2k L L 2L L
These are the heat fluxes.
Example 7.2
A heavy lubricating oil ( 0.8 Ns/m 2 , k 0.15 W/mK) flows in the
clearance between a shaft and its bearing. It the bearing and shaft are kept at 10oC
and 30oC respectively and the clearance between them is 2 mm, determine the
maximum temperature in the oil and the heat flux to the plates for a velocity
U = 6 m/s.
Solution
Because of small clearance between the journal and its bearing, the flow between
them may be assumed as Couette flow. The surface heat fluxes are
U 2 K
q 0 TL T0
2L L
42
Convection Heat
0.8 6 2 0.15
3
30 10 Transfer
2 2 10 2 103
7200 1500 8700 W/m 2 8.7 kW/m 2
U 2 k
q L TL T0 7200 1500
2L L
5700 W/m 2 5.7 W/m 2
dT
The maximum temperature in the oil will occur where 0
dy
2
U
y C3 0
kL
2
U TL T0 U 2
y
kL L 2k L
TL T0 kL2 U 2 kL2
y
L U 2 2k L U 2
k 1
2 L
T T0 L
U 2
0.15
30 10 L 0.604 L
1
y
0.8 36 2
y y 2 TL T0
Tmax T0 U2 2
y
2k L L L
0.8
36 0.604 0.604 30 10 0.604
2
10
2 0.15
Nud B Re ad Pr b
Nu BGr a Pr b
(b) The efficiency of a fan depends on density , dynamic viscosity of
the fluid, angular velocity , diameter D of the rotor and the discharge
Q . Express in terms of dimensionless parameters.
(c) The resulting force R of a supersonic plane during flight can be considered
as dependent upon the length of the aircraft l , velocity V , air viscosity ,
air density and bulk modulus of air K . Express the functional
relationship between these variables and the resistance force.
43
Convection (d) Using Buckingham theorem, show that the velocity through a circular
orifice is given by
D
V 2 gH ,
H VH
where H is the head causing flow, D is the diameter of the orifice, is
the coefficient of viscosity, is the mass density, and g is the
acceleration due to gravity.
Exercise 9.2
(a) A ship 300 m long moves in sea-water, whose specific weight is
1030 kgf/m3. A 1:100 model of this ship is to be tested in a wind tunnel.
The velocity of air in the wind tunnel around the model is 30 m/s and the
resistance of the model is 60 kgf. Determine the velocity of the ship in sea
water and also the resistance of the ship in sea water. Assume the following
data :
Specific weight of air = 1.24 kgf/m3
Kinematic viscosity of sea water = 0.012 strokes
Kinematic viscosity of air = 0.018 strokes
(b) Air at 25oC and at atmospheric pressure flows over a flat plate at 3 m/s. If
the plate is 1 m wide and the wall is maintained at 75oC, calculate the
following at locations x 1 m and x xc from the leading edge :
44
Convection Heat
7.10 SUMMARY Transfer
In the present unit background of convective heat transfer has been discussed.
Derivations of continuity, momentum and energy equations are given. Concept of
hydrodynamic as well as temperature boundary layers are given at length. Detail
discussion is provided on similarity principles. The unit provides detail discussion on
dimensional analysis with workout problems.
REFERENCES
J. P. Holman (2002), Heat Transfer, 9th Edition Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi.
M. N. Ozisik (1985), Heat Transfer A Basic Approach, McGraw-Hill International
Edition.
F. P. Incropera and D. P. Dewitt (2004), Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer,
5th Edition John Wiley and Sons.
P. K. Nag (2002), Heat Transfer, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Limited,
New Delhi.
A. Bejan (1985), Convective Heat Transfer, 2nd Edition, John Wiley and Sons, INC.
45