Convection Heat

UNIT 7 CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER Transfer

Structure
7.1 Introduction
Objectives

7.2 Fundamentals of Convection

7.3 Concept of Boundary Layer
7.3.1 Flow Over a Flat Plate
7.3.2 Drag Coefficient and Drag Force
7.3.3 Thermal Boundary Layer

7.4 Heat Transfer Coefficient

7.5 Conservation Equations of Mass, Momentum and Energy for Laminar Flow
Over a Flat Plate
7.5.1 Vector Method
7.5.2 Conservation of Momentum Equations
7.5.3 Conservation of Energy Equation

7.6 Principle of Similarity Applied to Heat Transfer

7.7 Derivation of Dimensionless Parameters from the Differential Equations
7.7.1 Forced Convection
7.7.2 Free Convection
7.7.3 Unsteady Heat Conduction

7.8 Evaluation of Convection Heat Transfer Coefficients

7.9 Dimensional Analysis
7.9.1 Rayleigh’s Method
7.9.2 Buckingham -Theorem

7.10 Summary
7.11 Key Words
7.12 Answers to SAQ’s

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Convective heat transfer or, simply, convection is the study of heat transport processes
effected by the flow of fluids. Convective heat transfer has grown to the status of a
contemporary science because of man’s desire to understand and predict the extent to
which a fluid will act as “carrier” or “conveyer belt” for energy and matter. It is clearly a
field at the interface between heat transfer and fluid mechanics. For this study of
convective heat transfer problems must rest on a solid understanding of basic heat
transfer and fluid mechanics principles.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
 understand the mechanism of heat transfer by convection,
 classify various convective heat transfer processes,
 understand velocity and temperature boundary layers,
 derive the governing equations such as continuity, momentum and energy
equations,
5
Convection  appreciate importance of similarity principle and non dimensional numbers,
and
 apply dimensional analysis to find correlation of different variables.

7.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF CONVECTION

When energy transfer takes place between a solid surface and a fluid system in motion,
the process is known as convection. Convection is classified as
 Natural convection
 Forced convection
If the fluid motion is caused due to density difference, it is called free convection. If it
impressed by a pump or a compressor, it is called the forced convection. It is not
possible to separate the problem of heat transfer from that of the motion of the fluid, and
so a study of the hydrodynamic behaviour of the fluid is very much necessary in order to
gain an understanding of the heat transfer phenomena within a moving fluid.
A fluid may be defined as a material that supports no shearing when at rest or in a state
of uniform motion. Fluids exhibiting a linear relation between the rate of strain and the
applied shear stress are called Newtonian fluids. Common substances such as the gases,
water and oil are of this type. Certain suspensions that do not conform to a linear stress
rate and strain law are called non-Newtonian fluids. We will, however, be concerned
with the Newtonian fluids.
A fluid will be treated as a continuum, i.e. we will ignore the fact that the fluid is made
up of discrete particles (atoms, molecules, ions or electrons) and consider that the
smallest volume of fluid with which we are concerned is sufficiently large so that
macroscopic properties such as density, pressure and temperature have their usual
meanings and the motion of the fluid in contact with a solid surface is identical with that
of the surface (no slip motion).
In general, the behaviour of the flow depends on the properties of the fluids and on the
boundary conditions imposed. To analyse this behaviour requires the application of the
principle of conservation of mass (continuity equation), Newton’s laws of motion
(momentum equations) and the laws of thermodynamics (energy equation) along with
the phenomenological laws like Fourier’s law, Fick’s law and Newton’s law of viscosity.
Fluids include both liquids and gases. While liquids are incompressible, gases are
compressible, having their densities varying with pressure greatly, and also with
temperature.

7.3 CONCEPT OF BOUNDARY LAYER

Let us consider two plates a distance S apart as shown in Figure 7.1. The lower plate is at
rest, while the upper plate moves with a constant velocity U 0 . The space between the
plates is filled with a fluid.

Experience shows that in order to maintain the velocity U 0 of the upper plate a force is
necessary, and this force is directly proportional to velocity U 0 and inversely
proportional to the distance S. The force per unit area of the plate is equal to the shear
stress . Therefore,

U0
  . . . (7.1)
S
U0
or   . . . (7.2)
S
6
where  is the constant of proportionality. Convection Heat
Transfer
Moving
Uo

y
S

Stationary

Figure 7.1 : Flow between Two Parallel Plates (Conette Flow)

The fluid layers immediately adjacent to the two plates possess velocities equal to those
of the plates, namely U 0 and zero, respectively, while in the rest of the fluid the velocity
varies in a linear manner. Here  is a property of the fluid, called dynamic or absolute
viscosity. Phenomenological law represented by Eq. (7.2) is known Newton’s law of
viscosity. The fluids obeying this law are known as Newtonian fluids, as mentioned
earlier. Nonviscous or inviscid fluids are known as perfect or ideal fluids.
A more general form of Newton’s law is

du
  . . . (7.3)
dy

du
where is the velocity gradient at the wall (y = 0) as shown in Figure 7.2. When a
dy
fluid flows over a solid surface, there is a stagnant film immediately adjacent to the wall
where the fluid velocity is zero and through which heat is conducted.
Fluid flow
T
U y y  0
y
U(y) Surface of plate
T(y)

qc T Tw

Heat flow

Figure 7.2 : Velocity and Temperature Distribution in Laminar Forced Convection Flow
Over a Heated Flat Plate at Temperature TW

In an elastic solid, shear stress is proportional to the shear strain. In a viscous fluid, shear
N ms NS
stress is proportional to the rate of shear strain. The dimension of  is 2
. or .
m m m2
kgm s kg dynes
It is also 2
. 2 or . In cgs units, it is , which was called “poise” after the
s m ms cm 2
French physicist L.J.M. Poiseuille. However, it used to be expressed in centipoises (cp).

The viscosity of a liquid is much larger than that of a gas, i.e. liq   gas . As temperature
increases, the viscosity of a liquid decreases, because of the decrease of cohesive forces
between the molecules as the liquid becomes lighter. But as temperature increases, the
viscosity of a gas increases, because the molecules travel faster as a result of which there
is increase in the transfer of molecular momentum. 7
Convection There is another frequently used property, the kinematic viscosity, v, defined as


v . . . (7.4)


kgm3
The dimension of  is or m2/s. It is also called momentum diffusivity.
mskg

dyne  sec cm3 gmcm sec cm3 cm 2

In cgs units, it used to be in or . . or which used
cm 2 gm sec 2 cm2 gm s
to be referred as “stoke” after the British physicist G.G. Stoke. However, it used to be
expressed in centistokes (cs).

Let us assume that some fluid is flowing over a solid surface as shown in Figure 7.3(a).
If we imagine a curve in the fluid, the tangent at every point of which indicates the
direction of the velocity of the fluid particle, then the curve is known as a streamline.
When one streamline slides smoothly over another streamline, and if this is maintained
in the entire flow is known as laminar. When there is transverse flow of fluid particles
and streamlines are interwoven with one another, the flow is known as turbulent as
shown in Figure 7.3(b).
Streamlines

(a)
Smoke

Turbulent Flow

Laminar Flow

(b)

Figure 7.3 : (a) Laminar flow, (b) Laminar and Turbulent Flow

It was the British scientist Osborne Reynolds who first differentiated these two types of
flow in a series of experiments conducted in 1883. From various experiments on the
flows of fluids through pipes, Reynolds discovered that the absolute viscosity , the
mass density of the fluid , and the diameter of the pipe D are the three other factors
besides the velocity of the fluid, controlling the transition from laminar to turbulent flow.
The results were confirmed by various experiments of French scientist M. Couette in
1890. Reynolds and Couette arranged the four quantities in a dimensionless form, which
is called the Reynolds number ( Re ) in honour of Osborne Reynolds. It is defined as

 u m D um D
Re   . . . (7.5)
 v
where um is the mean velocity of the fluid,  = absolute viscosity,  = mass density,

8 D = pipe diameter,  = kinematic viscosity.

The value of Reynolds number at which the flow pattern changes from laminar to Convection Heat
Transfer
turbulent motion is called critical Reynolds number R ec . For smooth circular pipes, R ec
is usually taken as 2300. If Re > 2300, the flow is turbulent. If Re < 2300, the flow is
laminar.
SAQ 1
(a) Define Reynolds number.
(b) What is the difference between free and forced convection?
(c) What do you mean by viscosity? What is its unit in SI system?
7.3.1 Flow Over a Flat Plate
When a fluid flows over a flat plate and its velocity is measured at various points normal
to the surface in the immediate vicinity of the wall, a velocity profile is obtained, as
shown in Figure 7.4. The velocity begins with the value zero at the wall and increases
within a thin layer of thickness  to the value of free-stream velocity u.
Laminar region Transition Turbulent

U
y 

U U Surface
of plate
Viscous
sublayer

x
x=o U
du
dy

Figure 7.4 : Velocity Profiles in Laminar, Transition and Turbulent Boundary

Layers in Flow over a Flat Plate

This distance from the wall , is called the boundary layer thickness where there is
velocity gradient and above which velocity is uniform and there is no viscous effect.
Viscosity effect is thus confined only in the boundary layer, and the main flow outside
the boundary layer, called the potential flow, is considered frictionless, where for each
streamline Bernoulli equation applies.
In the flow of a fluid over a flat plate held parallel to the direction of flow (Figure 7.4),
the vertical scale is purposely enlarged in order to show the detail of the flow pattern.
When the fluid passes the leading edge of the plate, the velocity gradient and the viscous
boundary shear are high. The fluid is moving in the laminar regime, and the boundary
layer is thin. This is called laminar boundary layer. As the fluid travels further down
stream along the plate, the retardation of fluid flow progresses due to viscous shear, and
the boundary layer grows in thickness. As a result the velocity gradient gradually
decreases. Meanwhile the boundary shear is reduced as the thickness increases. When
the boundary layer becomes thick enough, the particles begin to move out of the smooth
layers or laminae, the laminar motion becomes unstable, and finally the flow becomes
turbulent. However, under the turbulent boundary layer, there is still a thin layer of fluid
immediately next to the solid boundary, and this is still flowing in the laminar pattern.
This is called the laminar sublayer. The layer of transition from the laminar sublayer to
the turbulent layer is called the buffer layer. Since a laminar boundary layer cannot
suddenly change into a turbulent one, a transition zone exists between them.
The behaviour of flow in the boundary layer with the distance x from the leading edge is
governed by the magnitude of Reynolds number given by

9
Convection u x
Re x  . . . (7.6)
v
where u is the free-stream velocity, x is the distance from leading edge and  is the
kinematic viscosity.
The boundary layer growth for flow over a flat plate is shown in Figure.7.5.
The orderly motion of fluid continues along the plate until a critical distance is reached
or Reynolds number attains a critical value R exc , when fluid eddies begin to form
characterizing the end of the laminar boundary layer and the beginning of transition from
the laminar to turbulent boundary layer. This value of critical Reynolds number for flow
over a flat plate is
u xC 5
Re x   5 × 10 . . . (7.7)
v
Turbulent layer

Laminar boundary Transition Turbulent boundary

Layer region Layer
u
u U(x, y)
u
Boundary layer
Thickness  (x)

0 xc Buffer
 (x)
layer
uxc Boundary Viscous
Rcc  v
sublayer
Layer thickness
Figure 7.5 : Boundary Layer Growth for Flow over a Flat Plate

This critical value, however, strongly depends on the surface roughness and the
turbulence level of the free stream. For example, with large disturbances in the free
stream, the transition may begin at a Reynolds number as low as 105 , and for flows
which are free from disturbances, it may not start until a Reynolds number of 106 or
more.
The boundary layer concept for flow over a curved body is illustrated in Figure 7.6.
Here, the x-coordinate is measured along the curved surface of the body. By starting
from the stagnation point and at each x -location, the y-coordinate is measured normal to
the surface of the body. The free-stream velocity u  x  is not constant, but varies with
distance x along the curved surface. The boundary layer thickness   x  increases with
distance x along the surface. However, because of the curvature of the surface, after
u
some distance x, the velocity profile u (x, y) exhibits a point of inflection, i.e.
y
becomes zero at the wall surface. Beyond the point of inflection, the flow reversal takes
place, and the boundary layer is said to be detached from the surface. Beyond the point
of flow reversal, the flow patterns are complicated and the boundary layer analysis does
not hold good.
Unseparated
flow u
Boundary layer
u
y
u (x)
u u
Point of x
inflection
x Separated
10 y u
0 flow
y y  0
 Convection Heat
Transfer
(a)

Edge of
Boundary layer

Reverse flow

Separation

(b)
Figure 7.6 : Boundary Layer Growth for Flow Along (a) Curved Body and (b) Circular Cylinder

As shown in Figure.7.6, if a line 1-1 is drawn in the boundary layer and parallel to the
boundary surface so that the area 234 = area 256, the distance between the line 1-1 and
 
the boundary line is called the displacement thickness   . Here   represents the
distance by which an equivalent uniform stream would have to be displaced from the
surface to give the same volume flow of the fluid.
Vol. flow

u u
3
(x)

5
1 1
6 2 4
* *

Figure 7.7 : Displacement Thickness *

The volume flow in the boundary layer


Q   u d y  u       . . . (7.8)
0

 
1  u 
 
u   u  u  d y    1 
0 0  u
dy

. . . (7.9)

7.3.2 Drag Coefficient and Drag Force

Let the velocity profile u (x, y) in the boundary layer is known. The viscous shear stress
 x acting on the wall at any location x is defined by
 u 
x     . . . (7.10)
  y  y 0
and it can be determined from the known velocity profile. In practice, shear stress, or the
local drag force per unit area  x , is related to local drag coefficient C f x by the relation

 u2
x  Cf . . . (7.11)
x
2 11
Convection Thus knowing the drag coefficient, one can calculate the drag force exerted by the fluid
flowing over the flat plate. From Eq. (7.10) and (7.11), we have

2v  u 
C fx    . . . (7.12)
u2  y  y  0

Thus the total drag coefficient C f x can be determined from Eq. (7.12) if the velocity
profile u (x, y) in the boundary layer is known. The mean value of the drag coefficient
over the plate length L is
L
1
L 0 x
Cf  Cf dx . . . (7.13)

Then the drag force F acting on the plate of length L and width b is equal to

 u2
F  bLC f . . . (7.14)
2
7.3.3 Thermal Boundary Layer
Analogous to the concept of velocity boundary layer, one can visualise the development
of a thermal boundary layer with temperature varying from Tw to T in the boundary
layer thickness  t as shown in Figure 7.8. Let us consider that a fluid at a uniform
temperature T
u
T
u
q’’ T T
 y
T(y) T(y)
u x
T Tw
 Velocity boundary layer
T = Thermal boundary layer

Figure 7.8 : Growth of Velocity and Thermal Boundary Layers in Flow over
a Flat Surface of Arbitrary Shape

flows along a flat plate maintained at a constant temperature Tw . If we define the

dimensionless temperature  (x, y) as
Tw  T
 ( x, y )  . . . (7.15)
Tw  T
where T (x, y) is the local temperature in the fluid, then at y = 0,   0 and at
y  ,   1 . Therefore, at each location x along the plate one finds a location
y   t  x  in the fluid where  equals 0.99. The locus of such points where  = 0.99
is called the thermal boundary layer  t  x  .

The relative thickness of the thermal boundary layer  t  x  and the velocity boundary
layer   x  depend on the Prandtl number of the fluid. For fluids having Pr = 1,
 t  x  =   x  . For fluids having Pr <<1, such as liquid metals,  t >>  , whereas for
fluids having Pr >>1,  t <<  .

12
 Convection Heat
7.4 HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT Transfer

If the temperature profile T (x, y) in the thermal boundary layer is known, then the heat
flux

 T 
q  x   k   . . . (7.16)
 y  y 0
where k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid. In practice, a local heat transfer
coefficient h (x) is defined as
q  x   hx Tw  T  . . . (7.17)

which, as we saw before, is the Newton’s law of cooling. From Eqs. (7.16) and (7.17),

 T y  y 0   
hx  k  k  . . . (7.18)
T  Tw  y  y 0

The local heat transfer coefficient hx can be determined by knowing the dimensionless
temperature distribution   x, y  in the thermal boundary layer. It decreases along the
length (Figure 7.9).
hx

hx

x
dx

0 x L

1 L
Figure 7.9 : Mean Heat Transfer Coefficient hm   h x dx
L0

The mean heat transfer coefficient as shown in Figure 7.9, over the length L of the plate
is
L
1
L 0
hm  hc  hx dx . . . (7.19)

The total heat transfer rate Q from the plate of length L and width b is

Q  bLhm Tw  T  . . . (7.20)

The transfer of heat from the solid wall to the fluid takes place by a combination of
conduction and mass transport. In laminar flow, heat is transferred by molecular
conduction from streamline to streamline. In turbulent flow, the conduction mechanism
is aided by innumerable eddies which carry lumps of fluid across the streamlines. These
fluid particles act as carriers of energy and transfer energy by mixing with other fluid
particles

T  Tw
Q  k f A  hA Tw  T  . . . (7.21)
f 13
Convection Since k f of fluids is generally small (expect liquid metals), the rate of heat transfer very
much depends on the rate of mixing of fluid particles. Higher the Reynolds number,
higher will be the rate of mixing, lower the value of  t and higher the values of h and Q.

SAQ 2
(a) Explain with the help of a diagram the concept of hydrodynamic and
thermal boundary layer for a laminar flow over a thin flat plate.
(b) What is critical Reynolds number?
(c) What is the physical significance of Prandtl number?
(d) Sketch the hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer for a laminar flow for
a flow over a flat plate for (1) Pr  1 , (2) Pr  1 and (3) Pr  1 .

7.5 CONSERVATION EQUATIONS OF MASS, MOMENTUM

AND ENERGY FOR LAMINAR FLOW OVER A FLAT
PLATE
To derive the conservation of mass or continuity equation, let us consider a control
volume within the boundary layer as shown in Figure 7.10 and assume that steady-state
conditions prevail. The rates of mass flow into and out of the control volume in the
x-direction are
M x'    u  dydz . . . (7.22)

  
and M x'    u    u  dx  dydz . . . (7.23)
 x 
 v 
 v  dy 
 y 

dx
u
dy  u 
u  + dx 
dy
 x 
dx
Surface of flat plate
pplate (x, y)



Figure 7.10 : Control Volume (dx  dy  1)for Conservation of Mass in an Incompressible

Boundary Layer in Flow Over a Flat Plate

Net mass flow in x-direction,


M x'  M x"     u  dxdydz . . . (7.24)
x
Similarly, net mass flow in y- and z-directions

M y'  M "y     v  dxdydz . . . (7.25)
y

and M z'  M "y     w dxdydz . . . (7.26)
y
Net rate of mass accumulation within the control volume

  dxdydz  . . . (7.27)
14 t
 Convection Heat
   
     u     v     w   dxdydz Transfer
 x y z 

Therefore,  div V = 0 . . . (7.28)
t
For steady state,

0 . . . (7.29)
t
 div V  0 . . . (7.30)
For an incompressible fluid,

Div V  0 . . . (7.31)
u v w
i.e.   0 . . . (7.32)
x y z
For a two-dimensional flow,
u v
 0 . . . (7.33)
x y
7.5.1 Vector Method
Let us consider a fixed control surfaces S enclosing a volume V as shown in Figure 7.11.

S V

dV

dS
m

Figure 7.11 : Control Volume

The rate of accumulation of mass inside S must be equal to the rate of inflow across the
control surface minus the rate of outflow.
Rate of accumulation of mass in the control volume



t 
v
 dV

Net rate of outflow across the control surface


S
 V dS

The surface integral is transformed to volume integral as

 div  V  dV
V

By mass balance,

15
 
 
Convection

t 
V
 dV =  
V
div V dV . . . (7.34)

Writing the conservation of mass equation for the differential volume dV with the
integral sign removed

t
  dv    div V dV   . . . (7.35)

Since dV is now independent, it is stuck off both sides of the above equation, and we
obtain

 div V  0 . . . (7.36)
t
By expansion of Eq. (7.36)
   
   u     v     w  0 . . . (7.37)
t x y z

  u v w    
or     u v w 0 . . . (7.38)
t  x y z  x y z

The expressions u , etc. describe the changes in density suffered by the differential
x
element as a result of displacements of the type dx = u dt, etc. to a new position, at which
the density has a different local value. The expressions are said to denote the

components of the convection rate of change of density, while the term denotes the
t
local time rate of changes of density. The sum of local and convective components gives
D
the total or “substantial” rate of change of density, for which the notation is usually
Dt
employed. Thus,
D     
 u v w . . . (7.39)
Dt t x y z
The continuity equation may be written as
D  u v w 
    0 . . . (7.40)
Dt  x y z 
D
or    div V . . . (7.41)
Dt
Similarly, if the velocity u  u  x, y, z , t  , then the acceleration of the fluid particle is

Du u x u y u z u
   
dt x t y t z t t
u u u u
=u v w + . . . (7.42)
x y z t

   Localdifferential
Convectivedifferential

SAQ 3
(a) Derive the continuity equation for a 2-D incompressible flow
(b) What is the significance of the continuity equation?

16
7.5.2 Conservation of Momentum Equations Convection Heat
Transfer
The conservation of momentum equation is obtained from application of Newton’s
second law of motion to the element. Let us consider in the flow of a fluid within the
laminar boundary layer an elementary parallelepiped of sides dx, dy and dz as shown in
Figure 7.12.

p
p+ dy
y y
u

 + d
u + du  + d
dy

u p
p p+ dx
gx x

dy

y

gy
dz

x
dx dx
x
z
p
Figure 7.12 L: Forces Acting on a Fluid Element

Three forces act on the element: inertia force, pressure force and viscous or friction
force.
Inertia Force
Fg  g x  dx dy dz . . . (7.43)

Pressure Force
 p 
Fp  p dy dz   p  dx  dy dz
 x 
p
 dx dy dz . . . (7.44)
x
Viscous Force
The velocity of fluid particles at the bottom surface of the element is less than that
of the particles within the element. Therefore, the shear stress will develop which
would tend to oppose the flow and the shear force is  dx dz. On the top surface
of the element the particles above (y + dy) move at a velocity exceeding that of the
particles within the element and hence would tend to accelerate and the shear
force would be
  
  dy  dxdz
 y 

Therefore, the net shear force is dx dy dz
y
   u 
or F  dx dy dz     dx dy dz
y y  y 

 2u
 dx dy dz . . . (7.45)
y 2 17
Convection This applies only to one-dimensional flow. In three dimensions,
  2u  2u 2u 
F    2  2  2  dx dy dz
 x y z 

  2 u dx dy dz . . . (7.46)
Adding Eqs. (7.43), (7.44) and (7.45), the x-axis component of the resultant of all
the forces acting upon the considered elemental volume.
p
Fx  Fg  Fp  F   g x  dv  dv   2 u dv . . . (7.47)
v
where dv = dx dy dz
 p 
or Fx   g x     2 u  dv . . . (7.48)
 x 
By Newton’s second law of motion
Du  p 
Fx    dv    gx     2 u  dv . . . (7.49)
Dt  x 
Du p
or    gx    2 u . . . (7.50)
Dt x
The components of the resultant force along the y- and z-directions can similarly
be obtained
Dv p
  gy     2 v . . . (7.51)
Dt y
Dw p
  gz     2 w . . . (7.52)
Dt z
This system of three Eqs. (7.50)-(7.52) is known as Navier-Stokes differential
equation for incompressible viscous liquids. For compressible fluids it can be
shown as
Du p 1 
  gx     2 u   div V
Dt x 3 x
p  1  
 gx      2u  divV  . . . (7.53)
x  3 x 
Dv p  1  
  gy      2v  divV  . . . (7.54)
Dt y  3 y 
Dw p  1  
  gz      2 w  divV  . . . (7.55)
Dt z  3 z 
DV 1
or   G  grad p   (  2 V  grad div V ) . . . (7.56)
Dt 3
For incompressible fluids

Div V  0 . . . (7.57)
The Navier-Stokes equations, together with the continuity equation, form the basis
of the mechanics of viscous fluids. They together represent four equations for the

18
 four unknowns u, v, w and p. In the case of compressible fluids we encounter an Convection Heat
additional unknown  , but we also have at our disposal the equation of state. Transfer

SAQ 4
Derive the momentum equation of a 2D incompressible flow. Explain the different
terms involved with the final equations.
7.5.3 Conservation of Energy Equation
We will now device the conservation of energy applied to the fluid element. The
equation governing the conduction of heat in a stationary medium, in the absence of heat
sources, is
T
  2 T . . . (7.58)
t
T
where is the local differential or the rate of change of temperature at a point which
t
is stationary.
If the medium is in motion, as in the case of a fluid, the total or substantial rate of change
of temperature is required, which is given below.
DT T T T T
 u v z
Dt t x y z

  2T  2T  2T 
  2T    2  2  2  . . . (7.59)
 x y z 
In presence of large pressure gradients or for fluids moving at high velocities, two
additional terms must be included to account for the compression work and for the
dissipation of energy due to friction. The complete energy equation for a compressible
fluid may thus be written as
DT DP
 cp   k  2T   V  . . . (7.60)
Dt Dt
where  V  denotes the dissipation function, first used by Lord Rayleigh, and given by

 u  2  v  2  w  2   u v  2
 V   2             
 x   y   z    y x 
2
 v w   u w  2
 
2
       divV . . . (7.61)
 z y   z x  3
The effect of viscous dissipation can be significant if the fluid is very viscous, as in
journal bearings, or if the fluid shear rate is very high. From Eq. (7.59), the following
two-dimensional expression for the energy equation without dissipation is obtained

T T   2T  2T 
u v  2  2  . . . (7.62)
x y  x y 

T T
Since the boundary layer is quite thin, under normal conditions  . Also the
y x
pressure term in the momentum equation, Eq. (7.50), is zero for flow over a flat plate,
 u 
since    0 . Eq. (7.50) thus reduces to
 x 
19
Convection
u u  2u  2v 
u v  v 2  2  . . . (7.63)
x y  y y 
Then the similarity between the momentum and energy equations becomes apparent, as
given below

u u  2u 
u v  v 2  . . . (7.64)
x y  y 

T T   2T 
and u v  2  . . . (7.65)
x y  y 
Where v is the kinematic or momentum diffusivity and  is the thermal diffusivity, the
dimensions of both being m2/s. The ratio of these two transport properties is called the
Prandtl number Pr. Therefore,

v  c p  c p
Pr    . . . (7.66)
 k k
If v   , then Pr = 1, and the momentum and energy equations are identical. For this
condition, nondimensional solutions of u (y) and T (y) are identical if the boundary
conditions are similar. Thus it is apparent that the Prandtl number controls the relation
between the velocity and temperature distributions.
The conditions which are important to study in the analysis of a heat transfer process are
Geometric Conditions
Round, rectangular, smooth or rough.
Physical Conditions
Properties of the fluid like oil, water, air, etc. c p ,  , k and  .

Boundary Conditions
Velocity and temperature distribution.
Time Condition
Steady, unsteady, periodic, etc.
Any flow or heat transfer problem can be solved by solving mass, momentum and energy
equations with appropriate boundary conditions, but in actual cases we often find
analytical solutions very complex and difficult. Broad simplifying assumptions are
frequently needed to arrive at a solution, and the experimental results vary widely from
the theoretical data.
SAQ 5
Derive the energy equation and explain the significance of different terms
appearing in the final equation.

7.6 PRINCIPLE OF SIMILARITY APPLIED TO HEAT

TRANSFER
The concept of similarity is derived from geometry. Two bodies are considered similar
when there corresponding linear dimensions are in a constant ratio to one another
(Figure 7.13), such that in the two triangles

20
 11 12 13 Convection Heat
   C , similarity constant Transfer
11' 1'2 13'
The concept of physical similarity demands in addition to the above that all the other
physical quantities involved in a given pair of systems, e.g. force, time intervals,
velocities and temperatures, are respectively proportional to one another. For two similar
systems
2  T
 f  , 2  f  , 2  fT . . . (7.67)
1 1 T1
and so on,

l2
l3
l2 l3

l1 l1

Figure 7.13 : Geometric Similarity of Two Triangles

where f  , f  and fT are similarity parameters for density, viscosity and temperature
respectively.
The physical laws discovered on the basis of the study of a model would apply not only
to the original system, but also to an infinite number of other systems, provided they are
physically similar to the model.
The methods of similarity allow us to generalize the experimental results with the aid of
model rules. These model rules help to establish dimensionless parameters which must
have the same values for both the model and the original system.
By Newton’s laws of motion,
mu
P  mf  . . . (7.68)
t
m1u1
so that P1  . . . (7.69)
t1

m2 u2
and P2  . . . (7.70)
t2

P2 m2 u2 t1
 . . . (7.71)
P1 m1 u1 t2

fu
or f p  fm . . . (7.72)
ft
f p ft Pt Pt
so that  1 1
 2 2  Ne . . . (7.73)
fm fu m1u1 m2 u2
where Ne  Newton number.
The dimensioned quantities are grouped together to yield meaningful dimensionless
parameters.
21
Convection
7.7 DERIVATION OF DIMENSIONLESS PARAMETERS
FROM THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
The laws of similarity, as applied to heat transfer, were obtained for the first time by
Nusselt, who derived the dimensionless parameters appropriate to forced and free
convection from the differential equations together with the respective boundary
conditions.
7.7.1 Forced Convection
Let us consider two pipes of different diameters as shown is Figure 7.14, each carrying a
steady flow of a different fluid.

 p1
Water
1

 p2

Oil
2

Figure 7.14 : Application of Similarity Principle

Both fluids are incompressible. Each flow is generated by pressure difference applied at
the ends of the pipe. Each flow is classified as forced convection. The fluids exchange
heat with the walls of the pipes, the actual direction of the heat flow being immaterial,
i.e. one fluid may be cooled while the other may be heated by the pipe. The physical
properties of the fluid are assumed to be constant, independent of temperature. The flow
of heat is considered to be steady.
The entire flow and heat transfer processes are described by the continuity, momentum
and energy equations :
Continuity Equation

 div V  0 . . . (7.74)
t
Momentum Equation
(x-component)
Du p 1 
  g    2 u   divV . . . (7.75)
Dt x 3 x
Energy Equation
DT
  2 T . . . (7.76)
Dt
By denoting the quantities appropriate to each pipe by subscripts 1 and 2,
Continuity Equation

Incompressible and steady flow div V  0

For the first pipe,

u1 v1 w1

  0 . . . (7.77)
x1 y1 z1

22
 x-component of the momentum equation Convection Heat
Transfer
u
Forced convection,  g  0; Steady state, 0
t
u1 u u
u1  v1 1  w1 1
x1 y1 z1

1 p1   2 u  2 u  2u 
  v1  21  21  21  . . . (7.78)
1 x1  x1 y1 z1 

Energy Equation

T1 T T
u1  v1 1  w1 1
x1 y1 z1

  2T  2T  2T 
 1  21  21  21  . . . (7.79)
 x1 y1 z1 

We can describe the heat flow at the wall in terms of heat transfer coefficient, and
a mean temperature excess of the fluid  m above the measured wall temperature
as shown in Figure 7.15.

T

T T

T

Figure 7.15 : Heat Transfer at the Wall

T  Tw
q  h Tw  T    k  h m . . . (7.80)
t

T  Tw
q  h Tw  T    k  h m . . . (7.81)
t

  
q1  h11  k1  1  . . . (7.82)
 n1  w
Identical equations and boundary conditions apply to the second pipe except for
the suffix 1 being replaced by 2. We now postulate that the two systems are
physically similar. Thus for length scale, the proportionality factor f L is defined
as
23
Convection L2
fL  . . . (7.83)
L1
Similarly, the other proportionality factors are listed below :
For the velocities u, v, w
u2
fu  . . . (7.84)
u1
For the pressure p
p2
fp  . . . (7.85)
p1
For the density
2
fp  . . . (7.86)
1
For the kinematic viscosity
v2
fv  . . . (7.87)
v1
For the temperature T and 
T2
fT  . . . (7.88)
T1
For the thermal diffusivities
2
f  . . . (7.89)
1
For the heat transfer coefficients h
h2
fh  . . . (7.90)
h1
For the thermal conductivities k
k2
fk  . . . (7.91)
k1

If we now introduce these proportionality factors (or similarity constants) into the
equations appropriate to the second pipe and take common factors outside the
brackets, we obtain for the second pipe (putting u2  f u .u1 , T2  fT .T1 , v2  f v .v1
and so on) :
Continuity Equation

f u  u1 v1 w1 

   0 . . . (7.92)
f L  x1 y1 z1 

x-Momentum Equation

f L2  u1 u u 
 u1  v1 1  w1 1  . . . (7.93)
f L  x1 y1 z1 
24
 Convection Heat
fp 1 p1 f v f u   2 u1  2 u1  2 u1 
  2 v1  2    Transfer
fL f  1 x1 fL  x1 y12 z12 
Energy Equation

fu fT  T1 T T 
 u1  v1 1  w1 1 
fL  x1 y1 z1 

f fT   2T1  2T1  2T1 

 1  2  2  2  . . . (7.94)
f L2  x1 y1 z1 
Equation describing the heat flow :

f k fT  1 
f h fT h1 m1   k  . . . (7.95)
f L  n1  w
These Eqs. (7.92)-(7.95) describe the processes in the second pipe, but they
become identical with those of the first pipe Eqs. (7.77)-(7.79) if the following
conditions are satisfied :
fu2 fp f f
  v 2u . . . (7.96)
fL fL f fL

f u fT f f
  2T . . . (7.97)
fL fL
f k fT
f h fT  . . . (7.98)
fL
It may be noticed that the continuity equation yields no condition for the
fu
proportional constants, since the value of is arbitrary. If we now substitute for
fL
the proportionality factors from Eqs. (7.84)-(7.91), we obtain the conditions which
must be satisfied for physical similarity to exist between our two systems and to
permit one system to be considered as a model of the other.
From Eq. (7.96) :
u22 L1 p2 L1 1 v2 u2 L12
  . . . (7.99)
u12 L2 p1 L2  2 v1 u1 L22
u2 L2 u1 L1 uL
  . . . (7.100)
v2 v1 v

1u12 2 u22 u2

  . . . (7.101)
p1 p2 p
From Eq. (7.97) :

u2 T2 L1  2 T2 L12
 . . . (7.102)
u1 T1 L2 1 T1 L22

u2 L2 u1 L1 uL
  . . . (7.103)
2 1 
From Eq. (7.98) :
25
Convection h2 T2 k 2 T2 L1
 . . . (7.104)
h1 T1 k1 T1 L2

h2 L2 h1 L1 hL
  . . . (7.105)
k2 k1 k

The resulting dimensionless parameters are designated with the names of

outstanding scientists in the field

uL
 Re or N Re , Reynolds number
v
uL
 Pe or N Pe , Peclet number

hL
 Nu or N Nu , Nusselt number
k

( u 2 )
The dimensionless product does not represent a true similarity parameter,
p
since the pressure in a channel with prescribed dimensions and velocities, adjusts
itself to the correct value in accordance with Eq. (7.78). Thus the flow is
determined by the Reynolds number alone, if geometrically similar boundaries are
assumed.
In addition to the three similarity parameters derived above, we may choose to use
any combinations of them, as long as a total number of three independent
parameters is preserved. Thus, for example, the ratio Pe/Re = v /  = Pr or N pr ,
Prandtl number is particular useful, because it contains only the properties of the
fluid.
Our original problem is thus solved, since if the three dimensionless parameters
Re, Pr and Nu are equal in both systems, then the two systems are physically
similar and constant properties exist between all quantities concerned. This may
be immediately extended to include all geometrically similar systems (i.e. all
circular pipes) for which the dimensionless parameters have the same values. If we
can obtain the solution for any one system by any means, e.g. empirically, it must
be possible to write this solution in the form
F (Re, Pr, Nu) = 0 . . . (7.106)
and it is valid for all the systems characterized by the same values of the
dimensionless parameters. To obtain an expression for a given variable, for
instance h, from Eq. (7.106), we solve the equation explicitly for the parameter
which contains the variable, i.e. Nu.
Nu = F (Re, Pr) . . . (7.107)

k
or h F (Re, Pr) . . . (7.108)
L
Hence, the heat transfer coefficient may be predicted for all similar systems from a
single model experiment. Eqs. (7.107) and (7.108) also express the fact that the
flow of the fluid is not affected by the heat transfer. The momentum equation
Eq. (7.78) yields as a single dimensionless parameter the Reynolds number.

26
7.7.2 Free Convection Convection Heat
Transfer
Eq. (7.106) is valid for forced convection only. In the case of free convection, the
buoyancy force experienced by a fluid system at a higher temperature, i.e. at a lower
density, than the surrounding fluid must be introduced into the momentum equation as a
body force.
Let us consider, as an example, a vertical wall at a temperature higher than that of the
surrounding fluid as shown in Figure 7.16. The fluid layer heated up by the wall suffers a
decrease in density and as a result experiences an up thrust relative to the surrounding
fluid.

T - T

T

T

 

Figure 7.16 : Temperature and Velocity Distribution in Natural Convection

1
The change in the specific volume vs  with temperature may be expressed in terms

of coefficient of thermal expansion

1  vs 
  T  . . . (7.109)
vs  p

where vs is the specific volume.

We will assume that only density varies with temperature, while other properties
  , c , k  are still assumed constant. For an ideal gas,
p

pvs  RT . . . (7.110)

RT
or vs  . . . (7.111)
p

 vs  R vs
 T   T  T . . . (7.112)
 p

1
 . . . (7.113)
T 27
Convection ( 0   ) g
Buoyancy force per unit mass .


Now, v  v0 1    . . . (7.114)

where   T  T0  excess temperature

1 1
 1    . . . (7.115)
 0
or 0     . . . (7.116)

0     . . . (7.117)

 g
Buoyancy force per unit mass is   g .

Buoyancy force per unit volume, G   g 

This is directed upward. By introducing this body force in the momentum equation,
Eq. (7.78),
u1 u u 1 p1
u1  v1 1  w1 1    g 1  1 1
x1 y1 z1  1 x1

  2u  2u  2u 
 v1  21  21  21  . . . (7.118)
 x1 y1 z1 

The subscript 1 refers to the model of a system, while subscript 2 refers to the system
itself. To describe the system itself, we require, in addition to the proportionality factors
2 g
of Eqs. (7.84)-(7.91), two more such factors defined by f   and f g  2 . In
1 g1
accordance with the procedure adopted for forced convection earlier, we obtain the
following condition

fu2 fp f f
  f g fT f   v 2u . . . (7.119)
fL fL f fL

Since the pressure differences in a free convection flow are generally negligible, the
second term of Eq. (7.119) does not yield any dimensionless parameter. Unlike forced
convection there exists no prescribed velocity. The fluid velocity is zero both at the plate
and at a large distance from it, outside the boundary layer. The ratio fu is thus largely
meaningless and may be eliminated. For Eq. (7.119),

fu2 f f
 f g fT f   v 2u . . . (7.120)
fL fL

Equating the first and third terms, f u  f v / f L , and substituting

f v2
f g fT f   . . . (7.121)
f L3

g 2  2  2 v22 L13
 . . . (7.122)
g1 1 1 v12 L32
28
 Convection Heat
g 2  2 2 L32 g1 11 L13 g  L3
   Gr . . . (7.123) Transfer
v22 v12 v2

g  L3
where Gr = Grashof number = .
v2
Eqs. (7.97) and (7.98) representing energy and heat transfer equations are equally valid
for free convection.

f u fT f f
  2T . . . (7.124)
fL fL

f k fT
and f h fT  . . . (7.125)
fL

fv
Substituting f u  in the first equation,
fL

f v fT f f
2
  2T . . . (7.126)
fL fL

f v  f . . . (7.127)

v2  2
or  . . . (7.128)
v1 1

v2 v1 v
   Pr . . . (7.129)
2 1 

f k fT
Again, f h fT  . . . (7.130)
fL

hL
which yields  Nu, the Nusselt number. Thus, the heat transfer in free convection
k
can be described by the equation

Nu = F (Gr, Pr) . . . (7.131)

7.7.3 Unsteady Heat Conduction

Fourier’s differential equations for unsteady heat conduction can be treated in the same
manner in which we have handled the equations of forced and free convection. For
one-dimensional heat flow, we have

T  2T
 2 . . . (7.132)
t x
For physical similarity between a system and its model, we have to introduce an
t2
additional proportionality factor for time f t  . Following the same procedure, we
t1
obtain

fT f f
  2T . . . (7.133)
ft fL
29
Convection t
 constant . . . (7.134)
L2
It is the Fourier number F0 , which is often referred to as dimensionless time.

SAQ 6
(a) Define Nusselt number, Grashof number and Prandtl Number.
(b) What is the principle of similarity?

7.8 EVALUATION OF CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER

COEFFICIENTS
In convection heat transfer the key unknown is the heat transfer coefficient. Five general
methods are available for its evaluation :
 Dimensional analysis combined with experiments.
 Exact mathematical solutions of the boundary layer equations.
 Approximate analyses of the boundary layer equations by integral methods.
 Analogy between heat and momentum transfer.
 Numerical analysis.
All five of these techniques have contributed to our understanding of convection heat
transfer. Yet no single method can solve all the problems because each one has
limitations that restrict its scope of application.
Dimensional Analysis
It is mathematically simple and has found a wide range of applications. The chief
limitation of this method is that the results obtained are incomplete and quite
useless without experimental data. Dimensional analysis makes little contribution
to our understanding of the transfer process, but facilitates the interpretation and
extends the range of experimental data by correlating them in terms of
dimensionless groups.
To correlate the experimental data there are two methods for determining
dimensionless groups :
 Enlisting the variables pertinent to a phenomenon and rationally
grouping them. This technique is simple to use, but if a pertinent
variable is omitted, erroneous results ensue.
 Dimensionless groups and similarity conditions are deduced from the
differential equations describing the phenomenon. This method, as
presented in the previous section, is preferable if the phenomenon can
be described mathematically.
Exact Mathematical Solutions
Exact mathematical analyses requires simultaneous solution of the equations
describing the fluid motion and the transfer of energy in the moving fluid. The
30 physics of the problem must be well understood to describe it mathematically.
 Complete mathematical equations can be written only for laminar flow under Convection Heat
Transfer
simple boundary conditions. Exact solutions are, however, important because the
assumptions made can be specified precisely and their validity can be verified
experimentally. Availability of high speed computers has increased the range of
problems amenable to mathematical solution.
Approximate Analysis of Boundary Layer
It avoids the detailed mathematical description of the flow in the boundary layer.
Instead, a plausible but simple equation is used to describe the velocity and
temperature profiles in the boundary layer. The problem is then analyzed on a
microscopic basis by applying the equation of motion and the energy equation to
the fluid in the boundary layer. This method is relatively simple and yields
solutions within engineering accuracy to problems that cannot be treated by an
exact mathematical analysis.

Analogy Between Heat and Momentum Transfer

It is a useful tool for analyzing turbulent transfer processes. Our knowledge of
turbulent-exchange mechanisms is not good enough to write mathematical
equations describing the temperature distribution directly, but the transfer
mechanism can be explained in terms of a simplified model. One such model
explains a mixing motion in a direction perpendicular to the mean flow accounting
for the transfer of momentum as well as energy, similar to that used to picture the
motion of gas molecules in the kinetic theory. Experimental results are
substantially in agreement with analytical predictions based on the model.
Numerical Methods
They can solve approximately the equations of motion and energy. The
approximation results from the need to express the field variables (velocity,
temperature and pressure) at discrete points in time and space rather than
continuously. However, the solution can be made sufficiently accurate if care is
taken in discretising the exact solutions. One of the most important features of
numerical methods is that once the solution procedure has been programmed,
solutions for different boundary conditions, property variables and so on can be
easily computed. Generally, numerical methods can handle complex boundary
conditions easily.

7.9 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

In engineering, we represent physical concepts by symbols or dimensions, as for instance
length by L and velocity by V. Through experience, we have learned that we can select a
certain number of dimensions as fundamental, and express all other dimensions in terms
of products of powers of these fundamental dimensions. The dimensions of commonly
used quantities in heat transfer analysis are listed in Table 7.1 with four fundamental
dimensions : mass M, length L, time t and temperature T. For example, the dimension of
heat transfer coefficient is W/ m 2 K. In MLtT system, it is (Nm/s) (1/ m 2 K) or, (kg
m/ s 2 ) (1/s m k) or kg/ s 3 K which is M/ t 3 T (or M t 3T 1 ). Similarly, all other quantities
can be expressed in fundamental dimensions, as given in Table 7.1.

The methods of dimensional analysis are founded upon the principle of dimensional
homogeneity, which states that all equations describing the behaviour of physical
systems, must be dimensionally consistent, i.e. each term with reference to a given set of
fundamental dimensions must have the same dimensions. When the equations governing
a process are known and solvable, dimensional analysis suggests logical grouping of 31
Convection quantities for presenting the results. When the mathematical equations governing certain
processes are unknown or too complex, dimensional analysis lays the foundation of an
efficient experimental program for obtaining the results, by reducing the number of
variables requiring investigation and by indicating a possible form of the semi-empirical
correlations that may be formulated. It should be borne in mind that dimensional analysis
by itself cannot provide quantitative answers, and thus cannot be a substitute for the
exact or the approximate mathematical solutions. It is nevertheless an important tool to
learn to use, especially in instances when mathematical analysis is impractical or when
some rapid, qualitative answers are needed.
Table 7.1 : Important Heat Transfer Physical Quantities and their Dimensions

Quantity Symbol Dimensions in MLtT

Length L,x,y L

Time t t

Mass M M

2
Force F ML t

Temperature T T

2 2
Heat transfer Q ML t

Velocity u , v, u Lt
1

Acceleration a,g 2
LT

2 2
Work W ML t
2 1
Pressure p Mt L

Density  ML
3

Internal energy e L2t 2

Enthalpy h L2t 2

Specific heat c L2 t 2T 1

Absolute  ML t
1 1
viscosity

Kinematic
viscosity
v L2 t 1

Thermal 3
conductivity
k ML t T 1

Thermal
 L2 t 1
diffusivity

Thermal 3 1 2
resistance
R Tt M L

Coefficient of
 T 1
expansion
32
 Convection Heat
Surface tension  Mt
2
Transfer

Shear stress  ML t
1 2

Heat transfer 3 1
coefficient
h Mt T

1
Mass flow rate m Mt
The application of similarity principle to the continuity, momentum and energy
equations for identifying the dimensionless parameters that govern the concerned
process, which was discussed earlier, is also based on the principle of dimensional
homogeneity. However, when the governing equations of a problem are unknown, an
alternate approach in the application of dimensional analysis is necessary. At the very
start, it is required to know, or more typically to guess, the independent variables that
determine the behaviour of a particular dependent variables of interest. These can
usually be found by logic or intuition developed from previous experiences with
problems of a similar nature, but there is no way to ensure that all essential quantities
have been included or not. Rayleigh first used this method and the rules of algebra to
combine the many variables of a problem into dimensionless groups. We are providing
in the next section two examples of application of Rayleigh’s method.
7.9.1 Rayleigh’s Methods
Method-I
Let us consider the frictional resistance of fluid flow per unit area of the inside
surface of the pipe. A reasonable assumption can be made that the resistance
which causes pressure drop of the fluid  p  is a function of tube diameter (D),
fluid density    , fluid velocity (u) and fluid viscosity    , or
 p  f [u , D ,  ,  ] . . . (7.135)
Let p  Cu a Db  c  d . . . (7.136)
where C is a dimensionless constant. The dimensional equation of the above
expression in fundamental dimensions M, L and t are
MLt 2
  L  ML   ML 
a c d
 Lt 1 b 3 1 1
t . . . (7.137)
L2
ML1t 2  La b 3c  d t  a  d M c  d . . . (7.138)
For the homogeneity of
M : 1 = c + d,
L :  1 = a + b – 3 c – d and,
t :  2 =  a – d.
On solving these equations we have b =  d, c = 1 – d and a = 2 – d.
p  Cu 2  d D  d  1 d  d
d
   u2
 C u  2
  C . . . (7.139)
  uD  Re dD
 uD
where Re d   Reynolds number. The values of constants C and D have to

be determined by experiments.
Method-II
Let us consider forced convection heat transfer between a fluid flowing through a
pipe and its wall. We enlist the variables pertinent to the phenomenon by logic or 33
Convection intuition and group them into dimensionless parameters. Let us assume that the
heat transfer coefficient h is a function of pipe diameter (D), fluid velocity (u), and
the fluid properties of density    , viscosity    , thermal conductivity (k) and

 
specific heat c p , or

h  f  D, u ,  ,  , k , c p  . . . (7.140)

h  BD a u b  c  d k e c pf . . . (7.141)
where B is a constant. Expressing the quantities in terms of fundamental
dimensions M, L, t and T

   ML   ML 
b c d
Mt 3T 1  BLa Lt 1 3 1 1
t

 MLt  L t 
e f
3
T 1 2 2
T 1 . . . (7.142)

or, Mt 3T 1  BLa  b 3c  d  e  2 f t  b  d 3e  2 f M c  d  eT  e  f . . . (7.143)

For dimensional homogeneity of
M:1=c+d+e
L : 0 = a + b – 3c – d + e + 2f
t : -3 = – b – d – 3e – 2f
T:–1=–e–f
On solving the above equations, a  c  1, b  c, d   c  f and e  1  f .
Therefore, h  BD c 1u c  c   c  f k 1 f c pf . . . (7.144)
f
 uD    c p  
c
hD
 B    . . . (7.145)
k     k 
or, Nud  B Recd Pr f . . . (7.146)

uD  cp 
where Re d   Reynolds number, Pr = = Prandtl number and
 k
hD
Nud   Nusselt number. Thus, in forced convection heat transfer, Nusselt
k
number is a function of Reynolds number and Prandtl number. The constants B, c
and f have to be evaluated from the experimental data.
SAQ 7
(a) Explain Rayleigh’s method.
(b) How the Rayleigh’s method is applied in deriving the functional
relationship of pressure drop of a fluid per unit area of the inside surface of
a pipe?
(c) Show by Rayleigh’s method that in forced convection heat transfer the
Nusselt number is a function of Reynolds number and Prandtl number.
7.9.2 Buckingham -Theorem
A simple and more systematic way of determining the dimensionless groups was
suggested by Buckingham and has come to be known as “pi-theorem”. If a small number
of physical quantities is involved, the Rayleigh method is simpler. But if the number of
physical quantities increases beyond a given limit, the procedure is tedious, and the
pi-theorem may be used advantageously. More physical quantities simply mean a few
more  -terms. Each  -term can be solved exactly the same way as in the case of fewer
34
physical quantities. According to the Buckingham  -theorem, any physical equation Convection Heat
Transfer
may be described by
  Q1 , Q2 , Q3 ,..., Qm   0 . . . (7.147)

which is a function of m common quantities Q1 , Q2 ,..., Qm . If n fundamental dimensions

M, L, t, and T, etc. are chosen, then the equation may be transformed into a new equation
containing  m  n  dimensionless terms represented by  as follows :

  1 ,  2 ,  3 ...,  m n  . . . (7.148)

where each  -term consists of (n + 1) quantities of Qs . To determine the  -terms, n of

the Q quantities have to be so chosen that they contain all the fundamental dimensions
M, L, t and T, and these are taken as repeating variables which form a dimensionless
number with each of the remaining variables.
We are giving below a few examples illustrating the application of Buckingham
 -theorem.
(a) We want to find out the relationship of pressure drop of a fluid per unit
length of a pipe through which it is flowing. We know or guess that p
depends upon the tube diameter (D), and velocity (u), density    and
viscosity    of the fluid. The physical equation may be written as

  u , D,  ,  , p   0 . . . (7.149)

There are five variables, or m = 5. Let us suppose that the three fundamental
dimensions are M, L and t, or n = 3. Therefore, the number of dimensionless
 -terms = m – n = 5 – 3 = 2. Therefore, Eq. (7.149) can be written as
 1 ,  2   0 . . . (7.150)

where each  -term consists of n + 1 = 3 + 1 = 4 common quantities. Let the

repeating variables (n) be u, D and  (which contain all the fundamental
dimensions M, L and t), and these will form a dimensionless number with
each of the remaining variables, i.e. p and  .

Let 1   a ub Dc  p . . . (7.151)

and  2   eu f D g  . . . (7.152)

 1   ML3   Lt 1   L   Mt 2 L2 
a b c
Therefore, . . . (7.153)

M 0 L0 t 0  M a 1 L3a b c  2 t  b 2 . . . (7.154)
In order to make  1 dimensionless, the exponents of M, L and t must all be
equal to zero. For dimensionless homogeneity
a 1 0
 3a  b  c  2  0
b20
On solving we obtain a   1, b   2, c  1 .

pD
 1   1u 2 Dp  . . . (7.155)
u2

 2   ML3   Lt 1   L  ML
e f
g 1 1
Similarly, t . . . (7.156)
35
Convection or M 0 L0 t 0  M e 1 L3e  f  g 1t  f 1
e 1 0
 3e  f  g  1  0
 f 1 0
e  1, f  1, g  1

or  2   1u 1 D 1   . . . (7.157)
 Du
Therefore, Eq. (7.150) can be written as

 pD  
 , 0 . . . (7.158)
  u  Du 
2

It can be written as
pD 1
   Re d  . . . (7.159)
u2 2
 Du
where Re d 

u2
or p    Re d  . . . (7.160)
2D
If the length of the pipe is L, the total pressure drop is
fL  u 2
p1  p2  pL  . . . (7.161)
D 2
where f is the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor for a smooth pipe, which is
a function of Reynolds number, i.e. f    Re d  .

(b) Forced Convection Heat Transfer

The heat transfer coefficient can be expressed as a functional relation

h  f  D,  , u ,  , c p , k  . . . (7.162)

or,   D,  , u ,  , c p , k , h   0 . . . (7.163)

Here, the number of variables, m = 7. Let the number of fundamental

dimensions be n = 4, which are M, L, t and T. The number of
 -terms = m – n = 3.
Therefore,   1 ,  2 ,  3   0 ...
(7.164)
Each  -term is composed of (n + 1) i.e. five quantities of which four are
repeating variables, forming a dimensionless number with each of the
remaining variables

   , D, u , c p ,  , k , h   0 . . . (7.165)

Let  , D, u and c p be taken as repeating variables which contain all the

four fundamental dimensions M, L, t and T and which will make a
dimensionless number with each of  , k and h.
36
 Convection Heat
Let  1   a D b u c c dp . . . (7.166)
Transfer

M 0 L0 t 0T 0  ML1t 1 ( ML3 ) a L  Lt 1
b
  L t
c 2 2
T 1 d

 M 1 a L13a b  c  2 d t 1c  2 d T  d . . . (7.167)

Therefore, 0 = 1 + a
0  1  3a  b  c  2d  0
0  1  c  2d
0 d
Solving these, we obtain, a =  1, b =  1, c =  1 and d = 0.

 1   1 D 1u 1c 0p  . . . (7.168)
 Du
Similarly, 2  k a1 Db1 u c1 c dp1

   L   Lt   L t 
a1 b1 c1 d1
 MLt 3T 1 ML3 1 2 2
T 1 . . . (7.169)

M 0 L0T 0 t 0  M 1 a1 L13a1  b1  c1  2 d1 t 3c1  2 d1 T 1 d1 . . . (7.170)

1  a1  0
1  3a1  b1  c1  2d1  0
 3  c1  2d 1  0
 1  d1  0
Solving these equations, we obtain
a1  1 b1  1 c1  1 d 1  1
k
 2  k  1 D 1u 1c p1  . . . (7.171)
 Duc p

 3  h a D b u c c dp
2 2 2 2

  ML   L   Lt   L t 
a2 b2 c2 d2
 Mt 3T 1 3 1 2 2
T 1 . . . (7.172)

M 0 L0 t 0T 0  M 1 a2 L3a2 b2  c2  2 d2 t 3c2 2 d2 T 1d2 . . . (7.173)

Therefore, 1  a2  0

 3a 2  b2  c 2  2d 2  0
 3  c 2  2d 2  0
1 d2  0
On solving, a2  1 b2  0 c2  1 d 2  1

h
 3  h  1 D 0 u 1c p1  . . . (7.174)
 cpu

  1 ,  2 ,  3   0 . . . (7.175)

It can be written as
37
Convection  3  B 1m 2n . . . (7.176)

m n
h     k 
 B    . . . (7.177)
cpu   Du    duc p 
m n
hD k     k 
.  B    . . . (7.178)
k  c p uD   Du    Duc p 
m n 1
hD     k  
 B   
 Du   c 
k  p Du 
 m  n 1 1 n
  Du    cp 
 B    . . . (7.179)
    k 
or, Nud  B Re ad Pr b . . . (7.180)

which is the same as Eq. (7.146).

(c) Free Convection Heat Transfer

The heat transfer coefficient depends upon the buoyancy force per unit mass
 g   , density    , vertical height (L), viscosity    , thermal
 
conductivity (k) and specific heat c p . Thus, it can be written

   , L,  , k , c p , g  , h   0 . . . (7.181)

The number of variables, m = 7. The number of fundamental dimensions,

n = 4, as before. The number of  -terms = 7  4  3. Each  -term will
consist of (4 + 1) or 5 variables. Let  , L,  and k be the repeating
variables, which contain all the fundamental dimensions. Now,

  1 ,  2 ,  3   0 . . . (7.182)

Then,  1   a Lb  c k d g


 ML3  L  ML
a b 1 1 c
t  MLt 3
T 1  Lt 
d 2

 M a  c  d L3a  bc  d 1t  c 3d  2T  d

 M 0 L0 t 0T 0 . . . (7.183)
acd 0
 3a  b  c  d  1  0
 c  3d  2  0
d 0
On solving we get a  2, b  3, c   2 and d  0
38
 Convection Heat
g  L3  2
 1   2 L3  2 k 0 g   . . . (7.184) Transfer
2
 2   a Lb m c k d c P
1 1 1 1


 ML3  L  ML
a1 b1 1 1 c1
t  MLt 3
T 1  L t
d1 2 2
T 1 
 M a1  c1  d1 L3a1  b1  c1  d1  2 t  c1 3d1 2 T  d 1
 M 0 L0 t 0T 0 . . . (7.185)

a1  c1  d 1  0
 3a1  b1  c1  d 1  2  0
 c1  3d 1  2  0
 d1  1  0
Solving a1  0, b1  0, c1  0 and d1  1.

 cP
 2   0 L0 1 k 1cP  . . . (7.186)
k
 3   a Lb  c k d h
2 2 2 2


 ML3  L  ML
a2 b2
t  MLt
1 1 c2 3
T 1  Mt
d2 3
T 1 
 M a2  c 2  d 2 1 L3a2  b2  c2  d 2 t  c2 3d 2 3T  d 2 1
 M 0 L0 t 0T 0 . . . (7.187)
a 2  c2  d 2  1  0
 3a 2  b2  c 2  d 2  0
 c 2  3d 2  3  0
 d2 1  0
Solving, a2  0, b2  1, c2  0 and d 2  1.
Table 7.2 : Dimensionless Group for Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow
Group Definition Physical Interpretation

hc L Dimensionless heat transfer coefficient;

Nusselt Number  NuL  kf
ratio of convection heat transfer to
conduction in a fluid layer of thickness L

Peclet Number  PeL  Re L Pr Product of Reynolds and Prandtl numbers

cP  v
Prandtl Number (Pr)  Ratio of molecular momentum diffusivity
k 
Rayleigh Number (Ra) GrL Pr Product of Grashof and Prandtl numbers

UxL
Reynolds Number  Re L  Ratio of inertia to viscous forces
v
hc Nu L

Stanton Number U  C P Re L Pr Dimensionless heat transfer coefficient

39
Convection hL
 3   0 L1  0 k 1h  . . . (7.188)
k
Therefore, Eq. (7.182) becomes

 g  L3  2  c p hL 
 , , 0 . . . (7.189)
 2 k k 
a b
hL  g  L3    c p 
or,  B 2    . . . (7.190)
k  V   k 
g  L3
where Gr = Grashof number =
V2
cp
Pr = Prandtl number =
k
Nu = Nusselt number = (hL)/k
a
Nu = BG r P r a . . . (7.191)
Dimensionless analyses have been performed on many heat transfer
systems, and Table 7.2 summarizes the most important dimensionless
groups used in design.
SAQ 8
(a) State Buckingham  theorem.
(b) What are the merits and demerits of Buckingham  theorem.
(c) What are the repeating variables? How are these chosen?
Example 7.1
An application involving exact solution of momentum and energy equations is met
within a situation called Coquette flow with heat transfer. Coquette flow provides
a simple model for flow between two parallel plates. The lower plate is stationary
and the upper plate at a distance L is moving with a velocity U. the lower and
upper plates are maintained at uniform temperatures T0 and TL respectively. This
model can be applied to the case of a shaft rotating in its stationary bearing with a
heavy lubricating oil in the clearance. If the clearance is small, the situation can be
considered as that of flow between two parallel plates. Find also the surface heat
fluxes to the plates.
Solution
With reference to Figure 7.17 given below, the continuity equation for steady-state
in compressible flow
Moving plate
u
TL

 = 0, W = L

u=0
T0

Stationary plate
Figure 7.17
40
 u Convection Heat
 0 or u  f  x  Transfer
x
The velocity does not vary with x.
The x-momentum equation.

2u  2u 2 u
or   0
x 2 y 2 x 2

 2u
0
y 2
u
 C1 y
y
or, u  C1 y  C2, which is linear,
At y  0, u  0,
 C2  0
y  L, u  U U  C1 L or C1  U / L
The velocity distribution in Couette flow is then given by
U
u  y  y
L
u y
or, 
U L
The energy equation can be written as
DT
k  2T     c p
Dt
2
 2T  u   T T T T 
k      cp  u v w 
y 2
 y   t x y z 
2
 2T U 
k   0
y 2
L
2
d 2T  U 
2
  
dy kL
2
dT  U 
    y  C3
dy kL
2
 U 
T    y  C3 y  C4
2

2k  L 
At y  0, T  T0 ,
 C4  T0
At y  L, T  TL ,
2
 U 
 TL     L  C3 L  T0
2

2k  L  41
Convection
TL  T0  U 2
C3  
L 2k L
2
 U  TL  T0  U2
 T  y     y 
2
y y  T0
2k  L  L 2k L
  y y2  y
or T  y   T0  U 2   2   TL  T0 
2k L L  L
In dimensionless form,

T  y   T0 y  2 y/L y /L
  U
2 2
 
TL  T0 L 2k TL  T0 
y U 2  y 
 1  1   
L  2k TL  T0   L  

y cp
Let   , Pr  ,
L k
U2
E = Eckert number =
c p TL  T0 

T  y   T0  1 
and     ;     1  Pr .E 1   
TL  T0  2 
This is the temperature distribution in Couette flow. Because of viscous
dissipation, the maximum temperature occurs in the fluid and heat transfer occurs
both to the hot and cold plates. For Pr . E = 0, there is no flow (U = 0) and hence
there is no viscous dissipation, and the temperature distribution is linear. The
surface heat fluxes can be obtained by Fourier’s law:
dT  1 1  T T 
q  y   k  k  U 2   2 2 y   L 0 
dy  2k L L  L 

 U2 TL  T0  k U 2 k
q y 0   k    TL  T0  Bottom plate
2k L L 2L L
 U 2
k U 2 k
qyL  k   L 0
T  T   TL  T0  Top plate
2k L L 2L L
These are the heat fluxes.
Example 7.2
A heavy lubricating oil (   0.8 Ns/m 2 , k  0.15 W/mK) flows in the
clearance between a shaft and its bearing. It the bearing and shaft are kept at 10oC
and 30oC respectively and the clearance between them is 2 mm, determine the
maximum temperature in the oil and the heat flux to the plates for a velocity
U = 6 m/s.
Solution
Because of small clearance between the journal and its bearing, the flow between
them may be assumed as Couette flow. The surface heat fluxes are
U 2 K
q 0    TL  T0 
2L L
42
 Convection Heat
0.8  6 2 0.15
 3
  30  10  Transfer
2  2  10 2 103
 7200  1500  8700 W/m 2   8.7 kW/m 2
U 2 k
q  L   TL  T0   7200  1500
2L L
 5700 W/m 2  5.7 W/m 2
dT
The maximum temperature in the oil will occur where 0
dy
2
 U 
   y  C3  0
kL
2
 U  TL  T0  U 2
  y 
kL L 2k L

TL  T0 kL2  U 2 kL2
y 
L U 2 2k L U 2

 k 1
2  L
 T  T0    L
 U 2

 0.15
 30  10    L  0.604 L
1
y
 0.8  36 2

  y y 2  TL  T0
Tmax  T0  U2 2 
 y
2k L L  L

0.8
 36 0.604   0.604     30  10  0.604
2
 10 
2  0.15  

 10  22.944  12.8  45.740 C.

Exercise 9.1
(a) With the help of Buckingham   theorem show that
(i) for forced convection heat transfer

Nud  B Re ad Pr b

(ii) for free convection heat transfer

Nu  BGr a Pr b
(b) The efficiency  of a fan depends on density  , dynamic viscosity  of
the fluid, angular velocity  , diameter D of the rotor and the discharge
Q . Express  in terms of dimensionless parameters.

(c) The resulting force R of a supersonic plane during flight can be considered
as dependent upon the length of the aircraft l , velocity V , air viscosity  ,
air density  and bulk modulus of air K . Express the functional
relationship between these variables and the resistance force.
43
Convection (d) Using Buckingham   theorem, show that the velocity through a circular
orifice is given by

D  
V  2 gH   , 
 H VH 
where H is the head causing flow, D is the diameter of the orifice,  is
the coefficient of viscosity,  is the mass density, and g is the
acceleration due to gravity.
Exercise 9.2
(a) A ship 300 m long moves in sea-water, whose specific weight is
1030 kgf/m3. A 1:100 model of this ship is to be tested in a wind tunnel.
The velocity of air in the wind tunnel around the model is 30 m/s and the
resistance of the model is 60 kgf. Determine the velocity of the ship in sea
water and also the resistance of the ship in sea water. Assume the following
data :
Specific weight of air = 1.24 kgf/m3
Kinematic viscosity of sea water = 0.012 strokes
Kinematic viscosity of air = 0.018 strokes
(b) Air at 25oC and at atmospheric pressure flows over a flat plate at 3 m/s. If
the plate is 1 m wide and the wall is maintained at 75oC, calculate the
following at locations x  1 m and x  xc from the leading edge :

(i) hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer thickness,

(ii) local and average friction coefficients,
(iii) local and average heat transfer coefficients,
(iv) the total rate of heat transfer, and
(v) the total drag force due to friction.
Properties of air at 50oC are   1.093kg/m 3 , c p  1.005 kJ/kgK,
v  17.95  10  6 m 2 /s and k  0.0282 W/mK .
(c) Air at 27oC and 1 atm pressure flows over a flat plate with a velocity of
2 m/s. Estimate
(i) the boundary layer thickness at distances of 20 cm and 40 cm from
the leading edge of the plate,
(ii) the mass flow that enters the boundary layer between x = 20 cm and
x = 40 cm. Take  of air at 27oC as 1.85  105 kg/ms. Assume unit
depth in z-directions. If the plate is heated over its entire length to a
temperature of 60oC, calculate the heat transfer in,
(iii) the first 20 cm of the plate,
(iv) the first 40 cm of the plate, and
(v) Compute the drag force exerted on the first 40 cm of the plate.
Properties of air at 316.5 K are v  17.36  10 6 m 2 /s ,
k  0.02749 W/mK, Pr = 0.7 and c p  1.006 kJ/kg K.

44
 Convection Heat
7.10 SUMMARY Transfer

In the present unit background of convective heat transfer has been discussed.
Derivations of continuity, momentum and energy equations are given. Concept of
hydrodynamic as well as temperature boundary layers are given at length. Detail
discussion is provided on similarity principles. The unit provides detail discussion on
dimensional analysis with workout problems.

7.11 KEY WORDS

Convection : A mode of heat transfer due to molecular diffusion
and bulk motion of fluid.
Newtonian Fluids : Fluids exhibiting a linear relation between the rate
of strain and the applied shear stress.
Viscosity : Property of a fluid, indicator of viscous loss or
frictional loss at the interface as the fluid flow
over a solid surface.
Inviscid Fluid : Fluid having no viscosity.
Reynolds Number : Dimensionless number indicating ratio of inertia
to viscous force.
Nusselt Number : Dimensionless heat transfer coefficient; ratio of
convection heat transfer to conduction heat
transfer in a fluid layer.

7.12 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Please refer the relevant preceding text in this unit for answers to SAQs.

REFERENCES
J. P. Holman (2002), Heat Transfer, 9th Edition Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi.
M. N. Ozisik (1985), Heat Transfer A Basic Approach, McGraw-Hill International
Edition.
F. P. Incropera and D. P. Dewitt (2004), Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer,
5th Edition John Wiley and Sons.
P. K. Nag (2002), Heat Transfer, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Limited,
New Delhi.
A. Bejan (1985), Convective Heat Transfer, 2nd Edition, John Wiley and Sons, INC.

45