MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)

Affiliated to JNTUHApproved by AICTE, NBA- Tier 1& NAAC – ‘A’ Grade ISO 9001:2015 Certified)
Maisammaguda, Dhulapally (Post Via. Hakimpet), Secunderabad – 500100, Telangana State, India

FLIGHT VEHICLE DESIGN LAB

B.TECH IV YEAR – I SEM

NAME

ROLL NO: BRANCH

YEAR: SEM:
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
Affiliated to JNTUH Approved by AICTE, NBA- Tier 1 & NAAC – ‘A’ Grade ISO 9001:2015 Certified)
Maisammaguda, Dhulapally (Post Via. Hakimpet), Secunderabad – 500100, Telangana State, India

CERTIFICATEE
Certified that this is the Bonafide Record of the work done
by Mr. /Ms. bearing
Roll No. of B.Tech IV Year
Semester for the Academic year 2023-2024
in

Internal Examiner External Examiner

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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

INDEX
S.No Date Title Page Faculty
No Sign

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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

INDEX
S.No Date Title Page Faculty
No Sign

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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

VISION
Department of Aeronautical Engineering aims to be indispensable source in Aeronautical
Engineering which has a zeal to provide the value driven platform for the students to acquire
knowledge and empower themselves to shoulder higher responsibility in building a strong
nation.
MISSION
a) The primary mission of the department is to promote engineering education and research.
(b) To strive consistently to provide quality education, keeping in pace with time and
technology.
(c) Department passions to integrate the intellectual, spiritual, ethical and social development
of the students for shaping them into dynamic engineers.

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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)

PEO1: PROFESSIONALISM & CITIZENSHIP

To create and sustain a community of learning in which students acquire knowledge and learn
to apply it professionally with due consideration for ethical, ecological and economic issues.
PEO2: TECHNICAL ACCOMPLISHMENTS
To provide knowledge based services to satisfy the needs of society and the industry by
providing hands on experience in various technologies in core field.
PEO3: INVENTION, INNOVATION AND CREATIVITY
To make the students to design, experiment, analyze, interpret in the core field with the help ofother
multi disciplinary concepts wherever applicable.
PEO4: PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
To educate the students to disseminate research findings with good soft skills and become a
successful entrepreneur.
PEO5: HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
To graduate the students in building national capabilities in technology, education and
research.

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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)
Engineering Graduates will be able to:
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals,
and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex engineering
problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences,
and engineering sciences.
3. Design / development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design
system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for
the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research‐based knowledge and research
methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the
information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modelling to complex engineering activities with an
understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the
professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions
in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable
development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of
the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in
diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering
community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports
and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader
in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life‐ long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and life‐long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

CODE OF CONDUCT FOR THE LABORATORIES

-All students must observe the Dress Code while in the laboratory.
-Sandals or open-toed shoes are NOT allowed.
-Foods, drinks and smoking are NOT allowed.
-All bags must be left at the indicated place.
-The lab timetable must be strictly followed.
-Be PUNCTUAL for your laboratory session.
-Program must be executed within the given time.
-Noise must be kept to a minimum.
-Workspace must be kept clean and tidy at all time.
-Handle the systems and interfacing kits with care.
-All students are liable for any damage to the accessories due to their own negligence.
-All interfacing kits connecting cables must be RETURNED if you taken from the lab
supervisor.
-Students are strictly PROHIBITED from taking out any items from the laboratory.
-Students are NOT allowed to work alone in the laboratory without the Lab Supervisor
-USB Ports have been disabled if you want to use USB drive consult lab supervisor.
-Report immediately to the Lab Supervisor if any malfunction of the accessories, is
there.

Before leaving the lab

-Place the chairs properly.
-Turn off the system properly
-Turn off the monitor.
-Please check the laboratory notice board regularly for updates.

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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

1. To mould students to become a professional with all necessary skills, personality and
sound knowledge in basic and advance technological areas.

2. To promote understanding of concepts and develop ability in design manufacture and

maintenance of aircraft, aerospace vehicles and associated equipment and develop
application capability of the concepts sciences to engineering design and processes.

3. Understanding the current scenario in the field of aeronautics and acquire ability to apply
knowledge of engineering, science and mathematics to design and conduct experiments in
the field of Aeronautical Engineering.

4. To develop leadership skills in our students necessary to shape the social, intellectual,
business and technical worlds.

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B. Tech (ANE) R-20

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

IV Year B.Tech. ANE- I Sem L/T/P/C
-/-/3/1.5
(R20A2191) Flight Vehicle Design Lab

Objectives:
1. To learn conceptual aircraft design of a typical civil transport and fighter aircraft.
2. Generate coding to evaluate Engine sizing and Wing design.
3. Generate codes for airfoil, vertical and horizontal tail contour sketch
4. Perform 3D Modelling of Aircraft
5. Demonstrate various systems used in aircraft

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS:
1. Weight estimation (Fixed engine) of the fighter and transport aircraft.
2. Weight estimation (Rubber engine) of the fighter and transport aircraft.
3. Estimating Wing Loading of transport and fighter aircraft.
4. Wing design and estimation of aerodynamic (lift and Drag) and stability parameters to
meet the system requirement.
5. Design of Horizontal and vertical tail and control surfaces to meet system requirements.
6. Design of Crew and passenger cabin for the hypothetical aircraft identified in
experiment no one.
7. 3D modelling of Aircraft.
8. Estimation of Nozzle characteristics
9. Demonstration of Hydraulic Test Rig.
10. Demonstration of Pneumatic Test Rig.
11. Demonstration of Control surface Test Rig.

Note: Minimum 10 experiments should be conducted.

Software Required:Catiaor Equivalent software&Microsoft Excel,MATLAB/SIMULINK
Programming or Equivalent software
TEXTBOOKS:
1. AIRCRAFT DESIGN: A Conceptual Approach AIAA Book ISBN:0-930403-51-7 by Daniel P
Raymer
2. MATLA/SIMULINK Users’ Guide.

Outcomes:
1. Student will be able to develop preliminary design of a given aircraft (transport and
fighter aircraft) to meet given performance requirements.

Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology(MRCET)

B. Tech (ANE) R-20

2. Able to use various software tools in design & analysis of aircraft.

3. Correlate fixed and rubber engine
4. Understand the functioning of aircraft systems
5. Analyze design paSrameters

Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology(MRCET)

 INTRODUCTION

Aircraft design is both arts and science and is a separate discipline of aeronautical engineering different
from the analytical discipline such as aerodynamics, structure, control and propulsion. It is the intellectual
engineering process of creating on paper a flying machine to

1) Meet certain specification

2) Certain pioneer innovative, new ideas and technology

Aircraft design is by its nature an iterative process. This means that estimates and assumptions have
sometimes to be made with inadequate data. Such ‘guesstimates’ must be checked when more accurate data on the
aircraft is available.
Requirements are set by prior design trade studies. Concepts are developed to meet requirement,
design analysis frequently points towards new concepts and technologies, which can initiate a whole new design
effort. All of these activities are equally important in producing a good aircraft concept.
The start of the design process requires the recognition of a ‘need’. This normally comes from a ‘project
brief’ or a ‘request for proposals (RFP).

ii. Purpose and scope of aircraft design:

An airplane is designed to meet the functional and safety requirements. The actual process of design is a
task involving
a) Selection of airplane type and data
b) Determination of the geometric parameter
c) Selection of power plant
d) Structural design and the analysis of various component
e) Determination of airplane flight and operational characteristics

Designing a new airplane starts from development of a concept - a general idea for airplane.

The design of any aircraft starts out in three phases

1. Conceptual Design
The first design step, involves sketching a variety of possible aircraft configurations that meet the
required design specifications. By drawing a set of configurations, designers seek to reach the design
configuration that satisfactorily meets all requirements as well as go hand in hand with factors such as
aerodynamics, propulsion, flight performance, structural and control systems. This is called design
optimization. Fundamental aspects such as fuselage shape, wing configuration and location, engine size
and type are all determined at this stage. Constraints to design like those mentioned above are all taken
into account at this stage as well. The final product is a conceptual layout of the aircraft configuration on
paper or computer screen, to be reviewed by engineers and other designers.

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 2. Preliminary design phase

The design configuration arrived at in the conceptual design phase is then tweaked and remodeled to fit
into the design parameters. In this phase, wind tunnel testing and computational fluid dynamics
calculations of the flow field around the aircraft are done. Major structural and control analysis is also
carried out in this phase. Aerodynamic flaws and structural instabilities if any are corrected and the final
design is drawn and finalized. Then after the finalization of the design lies the key decision with the
manufacturer or individual designing it whether to actually go ahead with the production of the aircraft.
At this point several designs, though perfectly capable of flight and performance, might have been opted
out of production due to their being economically nonviable.

3. Detail design phase

This phase simply deals with the fabrication aspect of the aircraft to be manufactured. It determines the
number, design and location ofribs,spars sections and other structural elements. All aerodynamic,
structural, propulsion, control and performance aspects have already been covered in the preliminary
design phase and only the manufacturing remains. Flight simulators for aircraft are also developed at this
stage.

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 DESIGN

The concept defines ways, means and parameters that should provide high efficiency and competitiveness
of a future airplane, its superiority in comparison with airplanes that are already exploited or designed.

The concept of a future airplane is determined by requirements for corresponding airplane functional and
performance characteristics defined by a customer. Then a concept of a future airplane – its scheme and
set of values for main parameters – is chosen.

All main parameters that will be chosen and determined at these stages should be based on statistics and
take into account the aviation development dynamics by forecasting changes of the most important
airplane features and characteristics with time. It requires knowledge of the latest achievements in the
field of aviation science and technology - aerodynamics, engine, equipment, weapon and airframe
engineering, constructional materials, airplane operation and etc.

Development of the airplane design concept while executing laboratory works, term and graduation
design projects requires working up a list of new technical achievements in the field of aviation with
estimation of its approximate positive influence on the main airplane parameters and characteristics:
possible decrease of airframe mass, fuel and power plant; expected improvement of airplane performance.
This list should contain specific technical innovations that should provide the improvement of efficiency
ratios for the designed airplane.

For example, in aerodynamics it can be using new supercritical airfoils, utilizing tip vortex scatterers,
wing boundary layer laminarization systems. Constructional perfection can be provided by decreasing the
number of structural divisions, applying honeycomb structures, employing new materials such as
aluminum, lithium and titanium alloys. While making a detailed list you may approximately estimate the
influence of each innovation on corresponding airplane parameters and characteristics. This information

8
can usually be found in dedicated literature, and it is recommended to use it while executing this stage of
your project. An example of such estimation of positive influence of state-of-the-art solutions on
advanced airplane performance is the fifteen - year scientific and technical forecast made by one of the
foreign airplane production companies.

According to it passenger planes designed and built with 2010th technologies have to weight on 23-35%
less then airplanes of the year 1995. This significant take-off mass decrease is achieved by using
following technological advances: wing boundary layer laminarization (4-6%), advanced aerodynamic
schemes (6%), applying new materials (8–10%), advanced power plants (3%), equipment and systems
(1%). These numbers are just an example, and now it can be a little out of date. Fresh forecasts can be
found in new publications, especially periodic, combining it with gathering statistics.

ANALYZING THE DESIGN SITUATION

A design situation analysis is carried out on basis of statistics research and airplane development study.
During this analysis the following problems should be solved:

1) Future demand for airplanes should be assessed with the required number of airplanes in the certain
time, for example, 5-10 years. This information can be found in publication from periodical editions,
describing the airplanes of a given type, and in review magazines dedicated to international air shows.

2) History of the development should be investigated, and achieved perfection degree of a given type of
airplanes should be mentioned. The average statistical and maximum values of the most important
performance parameters, geometric and weight parameters, the mileage rating and cost efficiency of these
airplanes should be given. Also maintenance and operating features - airplane cost, traffic handling cost,
an airplane life, reliability indexes, comfort ratios and etc. should be included.

3) Development prospects should be studied, and changes in main performance and relative airplane
parameters should be forecasted for the near future. Thus, dynamic and static diagrams for the most
important prototype parameters should be plotted using data from statistic tables; then their trend
functions with an approximation errors should be figured out and forecasted (extrapolated) parameter
values should be found

4) New engineering solutions that are expected to improve the value of each parameter should be
mentioned.

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10
 Experiment 1: Aircraft Conceptual 3D sketching and Modeling

Aim: Write the request for proposal for the particular aircraft, Develop the conceptual sketch of the
aircraft for given requirements.

Software’s used: Catia / Engineering Drawing

Theory:
Conceptual design begins with a specific set of design requirements established from customer or
a company-generated guess what future customers may need.
Design requirements include:
a) Aircraft range
b) Payload
c) Take-off distance
d) Landing distance
e) Maneuverability and speed requirements

Design begins with innovative idea rather than as a response to a given requirement. Before design a
decision is made to what technologies to incorporate, it must use only currently available technologies as
well as existing engines and avionics. If designed to build in more distant future, then an estimate
technological state of the art must be made to determine which emerging technologies will be ready for
use at that time.
Design begins drawing with a conceptual sketch like shown in

Procedure:
1. Write the request for proposal for the given aircraft. It should be in the form of parameters and
requirements for the aircraft.
2. Draw the conceptual sketch of the aircraft as explained in theory.
3. Draw the mission profile for the aircraft.

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Validation:
1. Model 3D model of the given aircraft in catia / creo and obtain the 3 views compare with the
hand sketch done.

Result:
1. The 3D views of given aircraft configuration by hand sketch and catia are done.

Catia 3D Views

Fig1. Example:

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 Experiment 2: Initial Sizing of a Transport aircraft

Aim: To estimate take-off gross weight for the given aircraft requirements and its mission profile using
weight estimation algorithm.

Software used: Matlab

Theory:

Weight components of airplane explained as follows:

1) Crew weight (Wc ):
The crew comprises the people necessary to operate the airplane in flight
e.g., Pilot, Co-pilot, Airhostess etc.
2) Payload weight ( W p ):
The payload is what the airplane is mentioned to transport passengers, baggage, freight etc.
(Military use the payload includes bombs, rockets and other disposable ordnance).
3) Fuel weight ( W f ):
This is the weight of the fuel in the fuel tanks. Since fuel is consumed during the course of flight.
Wf is a variable, decreasing with time during the flight.
4) Empty weight (We ):
This is weight of everything else-the structure engines (with all accessory equipment), electronic
equipment landing gear, fixed equipment and anything else that is not crew, payload or fuel.
5) Gross weight (W0 ):
The sum of these weights is the total weight of the airplaneW0 . Gross weight or total weight W0
varies through the flight because fuel is being consumed. The design take off gross weight W0 is the
weight of the airplane at the instant it begins its mission. It includes the weight of the fuel.
W 0 = W c + W p + Wf + W e
Wf We
W=W+W + W+ W
0 c p 0
W0 W0
(Wc + Wp )
W0 =  W W
(1)
1 − f − e 
 W0 W0 
Estimation of empty weight fraction (We W0 ):
The empty weight fraction (We W0 ) can be estimated from data based on
a) Historical data and tables
b) Refined sizing data and tables

Estimation of fuel fraction (Wf W0 ):

13
 The aircrafts fuel supply is available for performing the mission. The other fuel includes reserve
fuel, trapped fuel (which is the fuel which cannot be pumped out of the tanks).
Fuel fraction (Wf W0 ) is approximately independently of aircraft weight. Fuel fraction will be
estimated based on the mission to be flown.

Mission profiles:
Typical mission profiles for various types of aircraft are shown in Fig1. The simple cruise
mission is used for many transport and general aviation designs, including home built. Following are the
briefly explained the terms that are used in mission profiles:

Warm Up and Take-Off:

Warm Up is the engine start up for the airplane kept idling for some time to warm up. Take Off is
the point where aircraft is made lift off from ground. It is the motion after warm up i.e., moving
of airplane after starting and till it lifts off from the ground.
Climb:
It is between take-off (TO) and cruise (stead level flight with constant speed) Increase in height
until airplane achieves steady level flight.
Cruise:
It is the steady level flight to cover the mission distance. The mission distance is called Range.
Loiter:
Represent the airplane spending in air for some fixed number of minutes near airport before
getting the clearance from airport signal or simple spending some time to collect data of some
mission (Terrain data).
Dash:
It is the mission that must be flown at just a few hundred numbers of feet of the ground for low
level strike.
Landing:
It is the aircraft landing on the runway till stopping of engine.
Estimation of mission segment weight fractions:
The various mission segments (legs) are numbered starting from zero denoting, the start of the
mission. Mission leg one is usually engine warm up and take-off. The remaining legs are sequentially
numbered. For example in the simple cruise mission the legs could be numbered as (0) warm-up and take-
off, (1) climb (2) cruise (3) loiter and (4) landing.

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Similarly, the aircraft weight at end of each mission is denoted byWi . Denoting “i”-th segment as mission
segment weight
W0 =Beginning airplane weight (“Take –off gross weight”)
W1 =Weight of the airplane at end of warm-up and take-off
W2 =Weight of the airplane at end of climb.
W3 =Weight of the airplane at end of cruise
W4 =Weight of the airplane at end of loiter.
W5 =Weight of the airplane at end of landing.
W W W W W W
W W = 5 = 1 2 3 4 ... 5
x 0
W0 W0 W1 W2 W3 W4
So in general it can be written as
W
W W = i = W1 W2 W3 W4 ... Wi
x 0
W0 W0 W1 W2 W3 Wi −1

Given warm-up/take-off, climb and landing weight fractions from historical trends: The warm-up, take-
off and landing weight fractions can be estimated historically from Table2.

Requirements:
Aircraft type, engine type, wing sweep type, mission profile, crew weight, payload weight,
specific fuel consumption, L/D ratio.

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Procedure:
Estimation of gross weight, calculated using following steps:
1) Calculate the mission weight fraction of individual segment:
Mission weight fractions of following individual segments:
1) Take-off (W1 W0 ): This is taken from Table2.
2) Climb (W2 W1 ): This is taken from Table2.
3) Landing (W5 W4 ): This is taken from Table2.
4) Cruise:
Weight fraction for cruise segment is found using Breguet range formula.
V L  Wi −1 
R = C D ln  W 
 i
W  − RC 

= exp 
( )
i
Where R = range, C = specific fuel consumption
Wi−1 V L 
 D 
V = velocity, L/D = lift to drag ratio
5) Loiter
Weight fraction for loiter segment is found using Endurance formula.
L D  Wi−1 
E = C ln  W 
 i 
Wi  − EC 
= exp  Where E = endurance or loiter time, C = specific fuel consumption,
Wi −1  (L D )
V = velocity, L/D = lift to drag ratio
6) Empty Weight fraction: The empty weight fraction can be estimated from Table1 based on the
aircraft type and wing sweep.
2) Calculate gross weight of the aircraft from following equation which is function of W0 .
(Wc + Wp ) (1)
W0 =  W W 
1 − f − e 
 W0 W0 
We W0 is function of W0 , Wf W0 is also a function of W0 . W0 is calculated from equation(1) through
process of iteration. W0 has to be assumed, then RHS value of equation(1) is calculated which should
match the value of assumed, if it doesn’t, increment the assume by some value and iterate it. This process
is continued till the absolute difference of RHS value and assumed value is the least and that iteration step
will be your nearest solution.

This is done using following iteration table.

Difference=
Iteration. No Guess weight Calculated
Empty weight Fuel weight guess-cal
weight

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3) Plot graph for calculated weight, guess weight versus iteration number from above table results and
compare them in a single graph.

Validation:

1. Perform the analytic equations and obtain the results and validate with your code results

Result: The Gross takeoff weight of the given aircraft is

Sample Matlab output

'S_no' 'MISSION_SEGMENT' 'VALUE'

[ 1] 'Takeoff_condition' [ 0.9700]
[ 2] 'Climb_condition' [ 0.9850]
[ 3] 'Cruise_condition' [ 0.8986]
[ 4] 'Loiter_condition' [ 0.9277]
[ 5] 'Cruise_condition' [ 0.8986]
[ 6] 'Loiter_condition' [ 0.9917]
[ 7] 'Landing_condition' [ 0.9950]
[ 8] 'FUEL FRACTION' [ 0.3113]
[ 9] 'WO CALCULATED' [7.8172e+004]

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 Experiment 2: Weight Estimation of Fighter Aircraft

Aim: Perform rubber engine sizing of a given fighter aircraft requirements

Software used: Matlab

Theory:

Given warm-up/take-off, climb and landing weight fractions from historical trends: The warm-up, take-
off and landing weight fractions can be estimated historically from Table2.

Requirements:
Aircraft type, engine type, wing sweep type, mission profile, crew weight, specific fuel
consumption, L/D ratio, different range values, different payload weight values.

Procedure:

1. Draw the mission profile as per the given aircraft requirements, and decide the weight fractions in
the mission.
2. Calculate the value of take off weight from table 1 as per your aircraft requirements
3. Calculate the climb weight fraction by considering the following equation

4. Calculate the value for cruise weight segment

5. Calculate the loiter weight fraction by using

6. Calculate the combat weight fraction

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 7. Calculate the Descent weight segment

8. Calculate the Landing weight segment

9. Calculate Fuel weight fraction

10. Calculate the gross takeoff weight and empty weight fraction

11.11.
We W0 is function of W0 , Wf W0 is also a function of W0 . W0 is calculated from equation(1)
W
through process of iteration. 0 has to be assumed, then RHS value of equation(1) is calculated

19
 which should match the value of assumed, if it doesn’t, increment the assume by some value and
iterate it. This process is continued till the absolute difference of RHS value and assumed value is
the least and that iteration step will be your nearest solution.

12. This is done using following iteration table.

Difference=
Iteration. No Guess weight Empty weight Fuel weight Calculated
guess-cal
fraction fraction weight

Validation:

2. Perform the analytic equations and obtain the results and validate with your code results

Result: The Gross takeoff weight of the given aircraft is

16
 Experiment 23: Estimation of Wing Loading

Aim: To determine the wing loading of an aircraft for different mission segments

Software used: Matlab

Equations Required:
Stalling speed , V stall = 117 Knots
C l max for airfoil = 2.7
Cruise speed , M = 0.9
Typical cruise speed = 470 Knots
Allowable landing distance = 2000 fts
e = 0.85
AR = 10
Sa = 1000 fts ( airliner aircraft )
600 fts ( general aviation
1 STALL CONDITION
FORMULAE :-
W/S = 1/2 * ρ * ( V stall )^2 * C L max
CL
max = 0.9 * C l max
Since, ρ at sea level = 0.23769 * 10^-2 slugs/ft^3
CALCULATIONS
:-
C L max =
W/S = lbs/ft^2
2 TAKEOFF CONDITION
FORMULAE :-
( TOP ) * (σ ) * (C LTO ) *
W/S = (T/W )
C LTO = C l max * (V stall / V TO )^2
V TO = 1.15 * V stall
T/W = a * ( M max )^c
Since, TOP = 450 , at 10,000 ft
σ = 1 , at sea level
a = 0.267
c = 0.363
3 CLIMB CONDITION
FORMULAE :-

W/S = (T/W) + ( (T/W)^2 - ( (4*n^2 * C D,o ) / (π*A*e) ) )^1/2

( ( 2* n^2) / (q*π*A*e) )

(T/W)c = 1 + V

17
 vertical
(L/D)c V climb

V
vertical = R/C , V climb = 1.2 * V stall

S wetted S
C D,o = * C fe
ref

q = (1/2)*(ρ)*(V climb)^2 , at 1500 ft

Since , n = 1 , ρ = 0.2274 * 10^-2 slugs/ft^3

(L/D) c = 18
V
vertical = 2940 ft/min

4 CRUISE CONDITION
FORMULAE :-
W/S = q*( (π*A*e*C D,o)/3 )^(1/2)
q = (1/2)*(ρ)*(V cruise )^2 , at 42,000 ft

Since, ρ = 0.5337 * 10^-3 slugs/ft^3

V cruise = 470 knots
CALCULATIONS
:-
q =
W/S = lbs/ft^2
5 LOITER CONDITION
FORMULAE :-
W/S = q*(π*A*e*C D,o)^(1/2)
q = (1/2)*(ρ)*(V)^2 , at 5000 ft
V = 1.3 * V stall
Since , ρ = 0.1496*10^-2 slugs/ft^3
CALCULATIONS
:-
6 LANDING CONDITION

FORMULAE :-

W/s = ( (S landing) - ( S a) )*( (σ)*(C L max)/80 )

Since, C L max = 2.43

Sa = 1000 fts
S = 2000 fts

18
 landing
σ = 1

Procedure:
1. Calculate q, V for various segments by using above equations.
2. Calculate W/S stall condition by using the equation = 1/2 * ρ * ( V stall )^2 * C L max.
3. Calculate W/S takeoff condition by using the equation =( TOP ) * (σ ) * (C LTO ) * (T/W )
4. Calculate W/S climb condition by using the equation =
(T/W) + ( (T/W)^2 - ( (4*n^2 * C D,o ) / (π*A*e) ) )^1/2
( ( 2* n^2) / (q*π*A*e) )
5. Calculate W/S cruise condition by using the equation = q*( (π*A*e*C D,o)/3 )^(1/2)
6. Calculate W/S loiter condition by using the equation = q*(π*A*e*C D,o)^(1/2)
7. Calculate W/S landing condition by using the equation =( (S landing) - ( S a) )*( (σ)*(C L
max)/80 )

Validate:
1. Perform analytical calculations and compare with matlab results

Result: Wing loading of various mission segments are obtained as follows

Sl.No: MISSION SEGMENT (W/S)

1 Stall condition lbs/ft^2
2 Takeoff condition lbs/ft^2
3 Climb condition lbs/ft^2
4 Cruise condition lbs/ft^2
5 Loiter condition lbs/ft^2
6 Landing condition lbs/ft^2

Matlab result

'S_no' 'MISSION_SEGMENT' '(W/S)' 'Units'

[ 1] 'Stall_condition' [112.6162] 'lbs/ft^2'

[ 2] 'Takeoff_condition' [212.4831] 'lbs/ft^2'

[ 3] 'Climb_condition' [442.8376] 'lbs/ft^2'

[ 4] 'Cruise_condition' [ 67.3742] 'lbs/ft^2'

[ 5] 'Loiter_condition' [ 34.1761] 'lbs/ft^2'

[ 6] 'Landing_condition' [ 30.3750] 'lbs/ft^2'

19
 Experiment 4: Wing design and Drag estimation

Aim: Design wing according to the given data and plot the graph for α Vs CL and CL Vs CD

Software used: Matlab

Requirements: Wing area, aspect ratio, drag polar, span efficiency factor.

Theory:
The induced drag coefficient of moderate angle of attack is proportional to square of the lift coefficient
with a proportionality factor called the “drag-due-to-lift-factor or K”
C = KC2 (1)
D L

Following are the two methods to estimate “drag-due-to-lift-factor or K “:

1) Oswald’s span efficiency method

2) Leading edge suction method

1) Oswald’s span efficiency method:

According to classical wing theory, the induced drag coefficient of 3D-Wing with an elliptical lift
distribution equals the square of lift coefficient divided by π A (A = Aspect Ratio or Effective Aspect
Ratio)
1
K= (2)
Ae
A = Aspect Ratio
Aeffective = Effective Aspect Ratio
e = Oswald’s span efficiency (The value of e varies from 0.7 to 0.85)
Effective Aspect Ratio for
End-plates: Aeffective = A(1 + 1.9h / b) (3)
h = height of Endplate
Winglets: Aeffective  1.2 A (4)
Straight wing aircraft:
e = 1.78(1− 0.045A0.68) − 0.64 (5)
Swept wing aircraft:
e = 4.61(1− 0.045A0.68)(cos LE )0.15 − 3.1 (6)
Supersonic aircraft:
A[M 2 −1]
e= cosLE (7)
4A( M 2 −1) − 2
LE = Sweep angle of leading edge

28
Disadvantages of Oswald span efficiency method:
1) Ignores the variation of K with lift coefficient.
2) This doesn’t include the effects of the change in viscous separation as lift coefficient is
changed.

Wing Details

2) Leading Edge Suction Method:

This is a semi-empirical for estimation of K allows for the variation of K with lift coefficient and
Mach number. Due to the rapid curvature at the leading edge, there creates a pressure drop on the upper
part of the leading edge. The reduced pressure exerts a suction force on the leading edge in a forward
direction. This “leading edge suction” force S is in the direction perpendicular to the normal force N.
K = SK0 + (1 − S)K100
(8)
K = drag-due-to-lift-factor
1
K100 =
A
1
K0 =
Cl
Cl =slope of the lift curve, angle taken in radians
S = Leading edge suction factor

29
Equations Used:
* AIRFOIL DATA : 2414
C l max = 1.5
Clα = 0.11 / 1°
Aerodynamic Centre = 0.25 C
α oL = -1.33
C d,o = 0
r LE = 0
C l at minimum drag = 0.1 - 0.3
t/c max = 0.15
* DESIGN PARAMETER :

M at Cruise = 0.9
W cruise
S = = fts
( W/S ) cruise
W cruise = (W2+W3) / 2 = lbs
Λ LE = 25˚
λ = 0
C L start cruise = W2/ (S*q) =
C L end cruise = W3/ ( S*q) =
* AIR PROPERTIES :
Cruise Altitude = 42,000 ft
Velocity at Cruise = 470 knots
ρ = 0.5337 * 10^-3 sl/ft^3
q = 167.92
ν = 0.5564 * 10^-3 ft^2/s
μ = 0.2969 * 10^-6 sl/ft/s

30
 Procedure:

1. Calculate K, CD, C r, b, Λ t/c, M efft, β from the equations mentioned.

2. Calculate C L α=0, dCL/dα, C L from the given equations.
3. Consider switch case to find area for your prompted wing shape.
4. Consider a for loop to find drag for the given wing chord length by considering it as a flat plate
5. Calculate C f, S wet, F, C D,o
6. Consider for loop for various α values
7. Plot α Vs C L and C L Vs CD.
Tabulation:

α CL CD L D

Result: The variation of C L and CD for various angle of attack are obtained

Matlab plot

31
 Experiment 5: Design of Horizontal and vertical Tails

Aim: To design horizontal and vertical tails for a jet transport aircraft

Software used: MATLAB

Theory: Tails provide for trim, stability, and control. There are horizontal and vertical tails

Inputs:

1. Wing data: b = 32.2 ft ; mac= 21.5 ft ; S = 519 ; M = 0.9 ; ΛLE = 62° ; t/c = 0.04 ; λ = 0 .
2. Vertical tail data : C vt = 0.07 ; L vt = 40 ; ΛLE = 63° ; λ = 0.3 ; A vt = 1.1 ; t/c = 0.04
1. Horizontal tail data: C ht = 0.11 ; Lht = 50 ; ΛLE = 63° ; λ = 0.35 ; A ht = 2 ; t/c = 0.04

Equations used:

b = (Avt*Svt)^(1/2)

2*S vt
Cr =
b*(1+λ)

Ct = λ* C r

bw*Sw
S vt = C vt *
L vt

2*C r 1+λ+(λ^2)
m.a.c =
3 1+λ

b = (Aht*Sht)^(1/2)

2*Sht
Cr =
b*(1+λ)

Ct = λ*Cr

(m.a.c)w
S ht = C ht*
L ht

2*C r 1+λ+(λ^2)
m.a.c =
3 1+λ
Procedure:

36
 1. Calculate b, Cr, Ct, S ht, mac for horizontal tail with the given equations.
2. Plot the coordinates to obtain horizontal tail configuration.
3. Calculate b, Cr, Ct, S ht, mac for vertical tail with the given equations.
4. Plot the coordinates to obtain vertical tail configuration.
5. Develop 3D model in catia

Validation:

1. Develop 3D model in Catia with the given coordinates points.

2. Compare with theoretical calculations and graph

Result: Horizontal and vertical tail are generated configurations are generated and 3D modeling is done

Matlab output

37
 Experiment 5: Design of Horizontal and vertical Tails

Aim: To design horizontal and vertical tails for a jet transport aircraft

Software used: MATLAB

Theory: Tails provide for trim, stability, and control. There are horizontal and vertical tails

Inputs:

1. Wing data: b = 32.2 ft ; mac= 21.5 ft ; S = 519 ; M = 0.9 ; ΛLE = 62° ; t/c = 0.04 ; λ = 0 .
2. Vertical tail data : C vt = 0.07 ; L vt = 40 ; ΛLE = 63° ; λ = 0.3 ; A vt = 1.1 ; t/c = 0.04
1. Horizontal tail data: C ht = 0.11 ; Lht = 50 ; ΛLE = 63° ; λ = 0.35 ; A ht = 2 ; t/c = 0.04

Equations used:

b = (Avt*Svt)^(1/2)

2*S vt
Cr =
b*(1+λ)

Ct = λ* C r

bw*Sw
S vt = C vt *
L vt

2*C r 1+λ+(λ^2)
m.a.c =
3 1+λ

b = (Aht*Sht)^(1/2)

2*Sht
Cr =
b*(1+λ)

Ct = λ*Cr

(m.a.c)w
S ht = C ht*
L ht

2*C r 1+λ+(λ^2)
m.a.c =
3 1+λ
Procedure:

36
 1. Calculate b, Cr, Ct, S ht, mac for horizontal tail with the given equations.
2. Plot the coordinates to obtain horizontal tail configuration.
3. Calculate b, Cr, Ct, S ht, mac for vertical tail with the given equations.
4. Plot the coordinates to obtain vertical tail configuration.
5. Develop 3D model in catia

Validation:

1. Develop 3D model in Catia with the given coordinates points.

2. Compare with theoretical calculations and graph

Result: Horizontal and vertical tail are generated configurations are generated and 3D modeling is done

Matlab output

37
 Experiment 8: Engine Sizing

Aim: To estimate the total drags on an aircraft.

Software used: MATLAB

Theory: To develop the propulsion system it is necessary to know the actual dimensions and installation
requirements of the engine and as well as its supporting equipment like inlet, nozzle or propellers

Equations used:

38
 Experiment 7: Engine Sizing

Aim: To estimate the total drags on an aircraft.

Software used: MATLAB

Theory: To develop the propulsion system it is necessary to know the actual dimensions and installation
requirements of the engine and as well as its supporting equipment like inlet, nozzle or propellers

Equations used:

Procedure:

2. Calculate the weight, thrust, lift and drag from the given equations.
3. Calculate the exit pressure and mach number for the given nozzle configurations

Validation: Check with the theoretical calculations

Result: The engine with given specifications is designed and nozzle exit conditions are calculated

39
 Experiment 10: Operation of Hydraulic test rig

Aim: Operate the hydraulic test rig to deflect the control system.

Equipment Required:

1. Hydraulic test rig

Theory:

A hydraulic drive system is a drive or transmission system that uses pressurized hydraulic fluid to
power hydraulic machinery. The term hydrostatic refers to the transfer of energy from flow and pressure, not from
the kinetic energy of the flow.

Common hydraulic fluids are based on mineral oil or water. Examples of equipment that might use hydraulic fluids
include excavators and backhoes, hydraulic brakes, power steering systems, transmissions, garbage trucks, aircraft
flight control systems, lifts, and industrial machinery.

The Basic Idea

The basic idea behind any hydraulic system is very simple: Force that is applied at one point is transmitted to another point using an
incompressible fluid. The fluid is almost always an oil of some sort. The force is almost always multiplied in the process. The picture below
shows the simplest possible hydraulic system

A hydraulic pump is a mechanical source of power that converts mechanical power into hydraulic energy
(hydrostatic energy i.e. flow, pressure). It generates flow with enough power to overcome pressure induced by the
load at the pump outlet.

BASIC HYDRAULIC SYSTEM.

40
• Pneumatic linear actuators consist of a piston inside a hollow cylinder. Pressure from an external compressor or manual
pump moves the piston inside the cylinder. As pressure increases, the cylinder moves along the axis of the piston, creating
a linear force. The piston returns to its original position by either a spring-back force or fluid being supplied to the other
side of the piston.

• Hydraulic linear actuators operate similarly to pneumatic actuators, but an incompressible liquid from a pump rather than

pressurized air moves the cylinder.

• An electric linear actuator converts electrical energy into torque. An electric motor mechanically connected turns a lead

screw. A threaded lead or ball nut with corresponding threads that match those of the screw is prevented from rotating
with the screw. When the screw rotates, the nut gets driven along the threads. The direction the nut moves depends on
which direction the screw rotates and also returns the actuator to its original position.

41
The top image shows a spring return actuator. The maximum spring compression pushes back on the piston and the hydraulic fluid exits the cylinder and
returns to its starting position. The bottom image is a double-acting cylinder where fluid enters either side of the piston depending on the desired motion.

Hydraulic Actuators

Advantages

• Hydraulic actuators are rugged and suited for high-force applications. They can produce forces 25 times greater than

pneumatic cylinders of equal size. They also operate in pressures of up to 4,000 psi.

• Hydraulic motors have high horsepower-to-weight ratio by 1 to 2 hp/lb greater than a pneumatic motor.

• A hydraulic actuator can hold force and torque constant without the pump supplying more fluid or pressure due to the

incompressibility of fluids

• Hydraulic actuators can have their pumps and motors located a considerable distance away with minimal loss of power.

Disadvantages

• Hydraulics will leak fluid. Like pneumatic actuators, loss of fluid leads to less efficiency. However, hydraulic fluid leaks

lead to cleanliness problems and potential damage to surrounding components and areas.

• Hydraulic actuators require many companion parts, including a fluid reservoir, motors, pumps, release valves, and heat

exchangers, along with noise-reduction equipment.

Result: The hydraulic test rig is operated

42
 Experiment 11: Operation of Pneumatic Test Rig

Aim: Operate the pneumatic test rig to deflect the control system.

Equipment Required:

1. Pneumatic test rig

Theory: A pneumatic system is a system that uses compressed air to transmit and control energy.

Pneumatic systems are used in controlling train doors, automatic production lines, mechanical
clamps, etc (Fig).

(a) Automobile production lines (b) Pneumatic system of an automatic machine

Fig. 1 Common pneumatic systems used in the industrial sector

(a) The advantages of pneumatic systems

Pneumatic control systems are widely used in our society, especially in the industrial sectors
For the driving of automatic machines. Pneumatic systems have a lot of advantages.

(i) High effectiveness

Many factories have equipped their production lines with compressed air supplies and movable
compressors. There is an unlimited supply of air in our atmosphere to produce compressed air. Moreover, the use of
compressed air is not restricted by distance, as it can easily be transported through pipes. After use, compressed air
can be released directly into the atmosphere without the need of processing.

(ii) High durability and reliability

Pneumatic components are extremely durable and can not be damaged easily. Compared to
electromotive components, pneumatic components are more durable and reliable.

43
 (iii) Simple design

The designs of pneumatic components are relatively simple. They are thus more suitable for use in simple
automatic control systems

(iv) High adaptability to harsh environment

Compared to the elements of other systems, compressed air is less affected by high temperature, dust,
corrosion, etc.

v) Safety

Pneumatic systems are safer than electromotive systems because they can work in inflammable environment without
causing fire or explosion. Apart from that, overloading in pneumatic system will only lead to sliding or cessation of
operation. Unlike electromotive components, pneumatic components do not burn or get overheated when overloaded

(vi) Easy selection of speed and pressure

The speeds of rectilinear and oscillating movement of pneumatic systems are easy to adjust and subject to few
limitations. The pressure and the volume of air can easily be adjusted by a pressure regulator.

vii) Environmental friendly

The operation of pneumatic systems do not produce pollutants. The air released is also processed in special ways.
Therefore, pneumatic systems can work in environments that demand high level of cleanliness. One example is the
production lines of integrated circuits.

(viii) Economical

As pneumatic components are not expensive, the costs of pneumatic systems are quite low Moreover, as pneumatic
systems are very durable, the cost of repair is significantly lower than that of other systems

(b) Limitations of pneumatic systems

Although pneumatic systems possess a lot of advantages, they are also subject to many
limitations.

i) Relatively low accuracy

As pneumatic systems are powered by the force provided by compressed air, their operation is subject to
the volume of the compressed air. As the volume of air may change when compressed or heated, the supply of air to
the system may not be accurate, causing a decrease in the overall accuracy of the system.

ii) Low loading

As the cylinders of pneumatic components are not very large, a pneumatic system cannot drive loads that are too
heavy

(iii) Processing required before use Compressed air must be processed before use to ensure the absence of water
vapour or dust Otherwise, the moving parts of the pneumatic components may wear out quickly due to friction

44
(iv) Uneven moving speed

As air can easily be compressed, the moving speeds of the pistons are relatively uneven.

(v) Noise

Noise will be produced when compressed air is released from the pneumatic components

(c) Main pneumatic components

Pneumatic components can be divided into two categories

1. Components that produce and transport compressed air.

2. Components that consume compressed air.

All main pneumatic components can be represented by simple pneumatic symbols. Each symbol shows only the
function of the component it represents, but not its structure. Pneumatic symbols can be combined to form
pneumatic diagrams. A pneumatic diagram describes the relations between each pneumatic component, that is, the
design of the system

2 The production and transportation of compressed air

Examples of components that produce and transport compressed air include compressors and pressure regulating
components

(a) Compressor

A compressor can compress air to the required pressures. It can convert the mechanical energy from motors and
engines into the potential energy in compressed air (Fig. 2). A single central compressor can supply various
pneumatic components with compressed air, which is transported through pipes from the cylinder to the pneumatic
components. Compressors can be divided into two classes: reciprocatory and rotary

Result: The Pneumatic test rig is operated

45