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Slobodan Dmitrović

Modern C++ for Absolute Beginners

A Friendly Introduction to C++ Programming
Language and C++11 to C++20 Standards
1st ed.
Slobodan Dmitrović
Belgrade, Serbia

Any source code or other supplementary material referenced by the

author in this book is available to readers on GitHub via the book’s
product page, located at www.​apress.​com/​9781484260463. For
more detailed information, please visit http://​www.​apress.​com/​
source-code.

ISBN 978-1-4842-6046-3 e-ISBN 978-1-4842-6047-0

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-6047-0

© Slobodan Dmitrović 2020

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the

Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned,
specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other
physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.

The use of general descriptive names, registered names,

trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply,
even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and
therefore free for general use.

The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that
the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and
accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with
respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or
omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
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Distributed to the book trade worldwide by Apress Media, LLC, 1

New York Plaza, New York, NY 10004, U.S.A. Phone 1-800-
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a Delaware corporation.
To M. R., whose work is an inspiration to me.
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank my friends and fellow C++ peers who have
supported me in writing this book.
I owe my gratitude to outstanding professionals at Apress for
their amazing work and support during the entire writing and
production process.
I am thankful to the StackOverflow and the entire C++
community for their help and feedback.
My deepest appreciation goes to S. Antonijević, Jovo Arežina,
and Saša Popović for their ongoing support.
Table of Contents
Chapter 1:​Introduction
Chapter 2:​What is C++?​
2.​1 C++ Standards
Chapter 3:​C++ Compilers
3.​1 Installing C++ Compilers
3.​1.​1 On Linux
3.​1.​2 On Windows
Chapter 4:​Our First Program
4.​1 Comments
4.​2 Hello World Example
Chapter 5:​Types
5.​1 Fundamental Types
5.​1.​1 Boolean
5.​1.​2 Character Type
5.​1.​3 Integer Types
5.​1.​4 Floating-Point Types
5.​1.​5 Type void
5.​2 Type Modifiers
5.​3 Variable Declaration, Definition, and
Initialization
Chapter 6:​Exercises
6.​1 Hello World and Comments
6.​2 Declaration
6.​3 Definition
6.​4 Initialization
Chapter 7:​Operators
7.​1 Assignment Operator
7.​2 Arithmetic Operators
7.​3 Compound Assignment Operators
7.​4 Increment/​Decrement Operators
Chapter 8:​Standard Input
Chapter 9:​Exercises
9.​1 Standard Input
9.​2 Two Inputs
9.​3 Multiple Inputs
9.​4 Inputs and Arithmetic Operations
9.​5 Post-Increment and Compound Assignment
9.​6 Integral and Floating-point Division
Chapter 10:​Arrays
Chapter 11:​Pointers
Chapter 12:​References
Chapter 13:​Introduction to Strings
13.​1 Defining a String
13.​2 Concatenating Strings
13.​3 Accessing Characters
13.​4 Comparing Strings
13.​5 String Input
13.​6 A Pointer to a String
13.​7 Substrings
13.​8 Finding a Substring
Chapter 14:​Automatic Type Deduction
Chapter 15:​Exercises
 15.​1 Array Definition
15.​2 Pointer to an Object
15.​3 Reference Type
15.​4 Strings
15.​5 Strings from Standard Input
15.​6 Creating a Substring
15.​7 Finding a single Character
15.​8 Finding a Substring
15.​9 Automatic Type Deduction
Chapter 16:​Statements
16.​1 Selection Statements
16.​1.​1 if Statement
16.​1.​2 Conditional Expression
16.​1.​3 The Logical Operators
16.​1.​4 switch Statement
16.​2 Iteration Statements
16.​2.​1 for Statement
16.​2.​2 while Statement
16.​2.​3 do Statement
Chapter 17:​Constants
Chapter 18:​Exercises
18.​1 A Simple if-statement
18.​2 Logical Operators
18.​3 The switch-statement
18.​4 The for-loop
18.​5 Array and the for-loop
18.​6 The const Type Qualifier
Chapter 19:​Functions
19.​1 Introduction
19.​2 Function Declaration
19.​3 Function Definition
19.​4 Return Statement
19.​5 Passing Arguments
19.​5.​1 Passing by Value/​Copy
19.​5.​2 Passing by Reference
19.​5.​3 Passing by Const Reference
19.​6 Function Overloading
Chapter 20:​Exercises
20.​1 Function Definition
20.​2 Separate Declaration and Definition
20.​3 Function Parameters
20.​4 Passing Arguments
20.​5 Function Overloads
Chapter 21:​Scope and Lifetime
21.​1 Local Scope
21.​2 Block Scope
21.​3 Lifetime
21.​4 Automatic Storage Duration
21.​5 Dynamic Storage Duration
21.​6 Static Storage Duration
21.​7 Operators new and delete
Chapter 22:​Exercises
22.​1 Automatic Storage Duration
22.​2 Dynamic Storage Duration
 22.​3 Automatic and Dynamic Storage Durations
Chapter 23:​Classes - Introduction
23.​1 Data Member Fields
23.​2 Member Functions
23.​3 Access Specifiers
23.​4 Constructors
23.​4.​1 Default Constructor
23.​4.​2 Member Initialization
23.​4.​3 Copy Constructor
23.​4.​4 Copy Assignment
23.​4.​5 Move Constructor
23.​4.​6 Move Assignment
23.​5 Operator Overloading
23.​6 Destructors
Chapter 24:​Exercises
24.​1 Class Instance
24.​2 Class with Data Members
24.​3 Class with Member Function
24.​4 Class with Data and Function Members
24.​5 Class Access Specifiers
24.​6 User-defined Default Constructor and
Destructor
24.​7 Constructor Initializer List
24.​8 User-defined Copy Constructor
24.​9 User-defined Move Constructor
24.​10 Overloading Arithmetic Operators
Chapter 25:​Classes – Inheritance and Polymorphism
 25.​1 Inheritance
25.​2 Polymorphism
Chapter 26:​Exercises
26.​1 Inheritance
Chapter 27:​The static Specifier
Chapter 28:​Templates
Chapter 29:​Enumerations
Chapter 30:​Exercises
30.​1 Static variable
30.​2 Static data member
30.​3 Static member function
30.​4 Function Template
30.​5 Class Template
30.​6 Scoped Enums
30.​7 Enums in a switch
Chapter 31:​Organizing code
31.​1 Header and Source Files
31.​2 Header Guards
31.​3 Namespaces
Chapter 32:​Exercises
32.​1 Header and Source Files
32.​2 Multiple Source Files
32.​3 Namespaces
32.​4 Nested Namespaces
Chapter 33:​Conversions
33.​1 Implicit Conversions
33.​2 Explicit Conversions
Chapter 34:​Exceptions
Chapter 35:​Smart Pointers
35.​1 Unique Pointer
35.​2 Shared Pointer
Chapter 36:​Exercises
36.​1 static_​cast Conversion
36.​2 A Simple Unique Pointer:​
36.​3 Unique Pointer to an Object of a Class
36.​4 Shared Pointers Exercise
36.​5 Simple Polymorphism
36.​6 Polymorphism II
36.​7 Exception Handling
36.​8 Multiple Exceptions
Chapter 37:​Input/​Output Streams
37.​1 File Streams
37.​2 String Streams
Chapter 38:​C++ Standard Library and Friends
38.​1 Containers
38.​1.​1 std:​:​vector
38.​1.​2 std:​:​array
38.​1.​3 std:​:​set
38.​1.​4 std:​:​map
38.​1.​5 std:​:​pair
38.​1.​6 Other Containers
38.​2 The Range-Based for Loop
38.​3 Iterators
38.​4 Algorithms and Utilities
 38.​4.​1 std:​:​sort
38.​4.​2 std:​:​find
38.​4.​3 std:​:​copy
38.​4.​4 Min and Max Elements
38.​5 Lambda Expressions
Chapter 39:​Exercises
39.​1 Basic Vector
39.​2 Deleting a Single Value
39.​3 Deleting a Range of Elements
39.​4 Finding Elements in a Vector
39.​5 Basic Set
39.​6 Set Data Manipulation
39.​7 Set Member Functions
39.​8 Search for Data in a Set
39.​9 Basic Map
39.​10 Inserting Into Map
39.​11 Searching and Deleting From a Map
39.​12 Lambda Expressions
Chapter 40:​C++ Standards
40.​1 C++11
40.​1.​1 Automatic Type Deduction
40.​1.​2 Range-based Loops
40.​1.​3 Initializer Lists
40.​1.​4 Move Semantics
40.​1.​5 Lambda Expressions
40.​1.​6 The constexpr Specifier
40.​1.​7 Scoped Enumerators
 40.​1.​8 Smart Pointers
40.​1.​9 std:​:​unordered_​set
40.​1.​10 std:​:​unordered_​map
40.​1.​11 std:​:​tuple
40.​1.​12 static_​assert
40.​1.​13 Introduction to Concurrency
40.​1.​14 Deleted and Defaulted Functions
40.​1.​15 Type Aliases
40.​2 C++14
40.​2.​1 Binary Literals
40.​2.​2 Digits Separators
40.​2.​3 Auto for Functions
40.​2.​4 Generic Lambdas
40.​2.​5 std:​:​make_​unique
40.​3 C++17
40.​3.​1 Nested Namespaces
40.​3.​2 Constexpr Lambdas
40.​3.​3 Structured Bindings
40.​3.​4 std:​:​filesystem
40.​3.​5 std:​:​string_​view
40.​3.​6 std:​:​any
40.​3.​7 std:​:​variant
40.​4 C++20
40.​4.​1 Modules
40.​4.​2 Concepts
40.​4.​3 Lambda Templates
40.​4.​4 [likely] and [unlikely] Attributes
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 British Museum (Natural History).
First Floor.
Second Floor.

Lower The Lower Mammal-Gallery is entered from the

Mammal western corridor of the central hall. Together with
Gallery.
the adjacent corridor, it contains the greater part of
the exhibited series of recent Mammals, with the
exception of the Cetacea, Sirenia, and Proboscidea,
which are downstairs, and the orders Primates,
Chiroptera, Insectivora, and Rodentia, which are in
17
the upper gallery. As three special guides are
devoted to these galleries, a very brief notice will
serve on this occasion. Both stuffed specimens and
skulls and skeletons are exhibited, although the
former constitute by far the greater portion of the
series. A few remains of extinct types, or plaster
reproductions of the same, are introduced here and
there; and photographs of living animals are hung
on the walls, where will also be found some
instructive series showing the modifications
assumed by the teeth of certain groups. Wherever
possible, the horns and antlers of the Ruminants,
as well as the horns of the Rhinoceroses, are placed
in juxtaposition to the animals to which they
respectively belong.

Fig. 33.—The Platypus or Duck-bill (Ornithorhynchus

anatinus).
 Fig. 34.—The Yellow-bellied Pangolin
(Manis tricuspis) in a characteristic
attitude.

Ruminants, The series commences on the right side of the

etc. gallery with the lowest forms. Down the middle is a
row of large Mammals, comprising various Deer,
Seals, and Rhinoceroses. On the right of the
entrance a small case contains the Australian
Platypus or Duck-bill (fig. 33) and the Echidnas of
Australia and New Guinea, which lay eggs, and are
the lowest of all living Mammals. In the adjacent
bay are the Marsupials, such as Kangaroos,
Phalangers, or so-called Opossums, Wombats, and
Bandicoots of Australasia, and the true Opossums
of America. The eighth and ninth bays on the left
side contain the so-called Edentate Mammals, such
as the South American Sloths, Ant-eaters, and
Armadillos, the Scaly Ant-eaters or Pangolins (fig.
34) of tropical Asia and Africa, and the African
Aard-Vark or Ant-Bear. The Sea-Cows, as
represented by the Dugong, the Manatee, and the
recently extinct Rhytina of Bering Island, are shown
in the Geological Department. In the second bay
are the Pigs and Hippopotamuses; in the third the
Camels, and near by the Chevrotains, or Mouse-
Deer. Following these are the Deer (Cervidæ), many
of which, as already stated, are placed in the
middle line of the gallery. Properly speaking, the
Giraffes and their recent and extinct allies, the
former represented by the Okapi of Central Africa
(fig. 14, p. 41), should come here; but, as already
mentioned, it has been found convenient to remove
the Giraffe group into the east corridor of the
central hall. In one of the cases in the bays stands
the Prongbuck or Pronghorn Antelope (fig. 35), the
sole living representative of a family characterised
by the circumstance that the horns have hollow
branched sheaths which are shed annually. Next in
order come the Antelopes, a large number of which
are placed in the corridors outside the gallery. This
series, it may be remarked, is particularly fine, and,
in fact, unique. At the last two bays on the right
side of the gallery the visitor reaches the Goats;
and in the “pavilion,” at the west end of the gallery,
he comes to the Sheep, Musk-Oxen, and Oxen, of
which there is a magnificent display, both as
regards mounted specimens and horns. Many of the
cases in the middle of the gallery and the bays have
been fitted with artificial groundwork, one of the
most striking being the European Reindeer case, for
which the materials were brought from Norway.

Fig. 35.—Prongbuck or Pronghorn

Antelope (Antilocapra americana).

Continuing our survey down the left side of the

gallery, the bay next the pavilion and an adjacent
case in the middle line contain the Zebras, Wild
Asses and the Wild Horse, among which is a
specimen of the extinct Quagga. Following this are
the Rhinoceroses and Tapirs, some of the former
being exhibited in the middle of the gallery. Adult
specimens of all the living species except the one-
horned Rhinoceros sondaicus of Java are exhibited.
The cut (fig. 36) shows the form of the head and
the number of the horns in three members of the
group.
 Fig. 36.—Heads of the White Rhinoceros
(Rhinoceros simus, a), Black Rhinoceros
(R. bicornis, b), and Great Indian
Rhinoceros (R. unicornis, c).

Hyraxes. In a small case by themselves are exhibited the

Hyraxes, which represent a subordinal group of
Ungulates. In this place should come the Elephants
(Proboscidea), but it has been found advisable to
exhibit the existing species of this group alongside
their extinct relatives in the Geological Department,
and in the central hall.

Fig. 37.—Male and Female of the Northern Fur-Seal, or

Sea-Bear (Otaria ursina).

Fig. 38.—Male Elephant-Seal, or Sea-Elephant (Mirounga

leonina).

Next in order follow the Seals, Walruses, and

Sea-Bears (fig. 37); and after these again, the land
Carnivora. Among the former, particular attention
may be directed to the specimens of Sea-Elephants
or Elephant-Seals (fig. 38) of the Southern Seas
and the Pacific coast of California. The visitor
 should also notice the various smaller southern
Seals, obtained during the “Discovery” Expedition,
in the case in the bay. Among the land Carnivora,
special interest attaches to the huge Brown Bear
from Alaska, the black and white Bear-like Great
Panda (fig. 39) of North-eastern China, and the
case of Tigers, in which both the long-haired
Manchurian and the short-coated Indian race are
shown.

Fig. 39.—Great Panda (Æluropus

melanoleucus).

Second Floor.
Upper The portion open to the public of the gallery on
Mammal
Gallery. this floor in the western wing of the building
contains such of the Mammalian orders (apart from
Proboscidea, Cetacea, and Sirenia) as are not
shown in the lower gallery. In the first two wall-
cases on the right on entering the gallery is
displayed a series of Bats, some stuffed, and others
in spirit. In the third wall-case are the Insect-eating
Mammals (Insectivora), such as Shrew-mice, Moles,
Hedgehogs, etc. Next come the Rodents, and then
the Lemurs, Monkeys, and Apes, the greater
number of the last being exhibited in the large case
in the middle of the gallery. Among the more
striking specimens may be mentioned the series of
Gorillas (fig. 40) and Chimpanzees, and the
Proboscis and Snub-nosed Monkeys.
Nearly all the left side of this gallery is devoted
to Anthropology, that is to say, to the
representation of the zoological characters of the
18
different races of Mankind ; the series including
busts, skeletons, skulls, hair, and portraits.

Fig. 40.—The Gorilla (Anthropopithecus

gorilla).
 At the west end of the portion of this gallery
open to the public stands a case exhibiting many of
the structural differences distinguishing the man-
like Apes from Man himself; and also showing
different types of human skulls and the method of
measuring the same. On the adjacent screens and
partitions are diagrams, photographs, and sketches
illustrating hand and finger prints, and identification
by means of the latter.

EAST WING.

Ground Floor.
Fossil The ground floor of this wing consists, as on
Collection.
the other side of the building, of a gallery running
west and east the whole length of the wing in front,
of a smaller parallel gallery behind this, and leading
from the latter a series of galleries running north
and south. With the exception of a certain number
of recent skeletons introduced for comparison, and
some of the specimens of Elephants and Sirenians
or Sea-Cows, the whole of this floor is occupied by
the collection of the remains of animals and plants
which flourished in geological periods previous to
the one in which we are now living. Some of these
belong to species still existing upon the earth, but
the great majority are extinct. They are arranged
mainly upon zoological principles, that is, the
groups which are believed to have natural affinities
are placed together; but within some of the great
 divisions thus mapped out, especially of the
Invertebrata and Plants, it has been found
convenient to adopt a stratigraphical or even
geographical grouping, the fossils of different
geological formations being kept apart, and those
of the British Isles separated from those of foreign
localities.
This portion of the Museum is more fully
19
described in the special Guides than is possible in
the present work.
Elephants, The front gallery, entered from the central hall,
Sea-Cows, and
Extinct
is devoted to Elephants and Sea-Cows, both living
Mammals. and extinct, and to extinct and fossil Mammals of
other groups. Down the middle are placed a
number of large and striking objects, of too great
size to be contained in the wall-cases. The first is a
nearly complete skeleton of the American Mastodon
(fig. 41), an animal closely allied to modern
Elephants, from which it is chiefly distinguished by
the characters of its cheek-teeth. This is followed by
a skeleton of the existing Indian Elephant (Elephas
maximus), and the mounted skin of a tuskless male
of the same species, brought home from India by
His Majesty King Edward VII., when Prince of
Wales. Further down the gallery is the skull of the
extinct E. ganesa—remarkable for the immense
length of its tusks—from the Siwalik Hills of India;
and another of the Mammoth (E. primigenius), with
huge curved tusks, in a perfect state of
preservation, found in the Brick-earth at Ilford,
20
Essex. Then follow skeletons of the great extinct
Irish Deer (Cervus giganteus), male and female, the
former distinguished by its magnificent spreading
antlers, resembling those of a Fallow Deer on a
large scale.

Fig. 41.—Skeleton of the American Mastodon

(Mastodon americanus). Greatly reduced.

The next central case is occupied by the skulls

and portions of jaws of a remarkable horned hoofed
quadruped, Arsinoïtherium (fig. 42), from the Upper
Eocene of the Fayum, Egypt. It belongs to an
ancient group not closely related to any living
animal.
 Fig. 42.—Skull of Arsinoïtherium zitteli,
from the Upper Eocene Strata of the
Fayum, Egypt. About 1/12th natural
size.

Equally peculiar is the Toxodon (fig. 43) from

the Pampas of S. America, of which a model of an
entire skeleton is exhibited.
 Fig. 43.—Skeleton of the Toxodon (Toxodon platensis).
From the Pampas Formation of Argentina. About 1/18th
natural size.

Near by is placed a model of a skeleton of the

Dinoceras (fig. 44), one of the most remarkable of
the many wonderful forms of animal life discovered
in the Tertiary beds of the western portion of the
United States of America. This animal combines in
some respects the characters of a Rhinoceros with
those of an Elephant, and has others altogether
special to itself. The group to which it belonged
became extinct in the Oligocene, or Middle Tertiary,
period, without leaving any successors.
 Fig. 44.—Skeleton of Dinoceras. From the Eocene of Wyoming,
U.S.A. One-thirtieth natural size.

Sea-Cows. Near the pavilion is a skeleton (fig. 45) of an

interesting animal, the Northern Sea-Cow (Rhytina
gigas or stelleri), the last resort of which was
Bering Island in the North Pacific, where it was
completely exterminated towards the close of the
eighteenth century. In the same case is placed the
skeleton of a smaller allied animal, the Halitherium,
from the Oligocene of South Germany. These, with
their existing representatives, the Manatee and
Dugong, constitute the order Sirenia, aquatic
Mammals of fish-like form, presenting considerable
external resemblance to Cetacea (Whales and
Dolphins), but differing in many points of structure
and habit. All the exhibited specimens of the group,
both living and extinct, are shown in this gallery.
Fossil remains The wall-cases on the south side (right on
of Man.
entering) contain typical series of chipped and
polished flint implements of human workmanship,
and also remains of Man found, under
circumstances which may justify the appellation of
 “fossil,” in caves or Pleistocene deposits, associated
with the bones of Mammals either completely or
locally extinct. Then follow in systematic order the
bones and teeth of the other Primates, the
Carnivora, Ungulata, and Sirenia.

Fig. 45.—Skeleton of the Northern Sea-Cow (Rhytina gigas or

stelleri). From Bering Island. Length of specimen, 19 feet 6
inches.

Elephants and The greater part of the north side of the gallery
Ruminants. is devoted to the exhibition of the remains of
Proboscidea (Dinotheres, Mastodons, and
Elephants), as well as teeth and skulls of the two
existing species of Elephants. The forerunners of
the Proboscidea from the Eocene strata of Egypt, as
represented by Palæomastodon and Mœritherium,
are of special interest. Attention may likewise be
directed to the skull of the gigantic Ruminant
Sivatherium (fig. 46), from the Siwalik deposits of
Northern India, an ally of the living African Okapi
(p. 41), with which it is connected by
Helladotherium of the Grecian Tertiary deposits;
another still more nearly allied type being
Samotherium, from the Isle of Samos, of which a
skull (fig. 47) is exhibited.
 Fig. 46.—Skull of Sivatherium giganteum,
an Extinct Ruminant from the Pliocene
Deposits of the Siwalik Hills, India.
About 1/13th natural size.

Edentates. In the “pavilion,” or large room at the end of

the gallery, are skeletons and bones of the
members of the order Edentata, mostly from South
America, including fine specimens of the great
Ground-Sloths, the largest of which, the
Megatherium, is shown in the act of rearing itself
on its hind-legs and powerful tail to seize and tear
down the branches of a tree in order to feed upon
the leaves. That this was the habit of this huge
animal is clearly indicated by the structure of its
bones and teeth. The mounted specimen is not an
actual skeleton, but is composed of plaster-casts of
the real bones, most of which are shown in the
wall-case at the north side of the room. Of the
Mylodon, a smaller but nearly allied animal, an
almost perfect skeleton is exhibited in a glass case
near the Megatherium. Near by is a portion of the
skin of a closely similar animal (Grypotherium
listai), from a cave in Patagonia, showing the hair,
 and also the nodules of bone embedded in the
hide.
Marsupials. Not far off is shown one of the glyptodons,
huge extinct Armadillo-like animals, of which the
body is enclosed in a solid barrel-like bony case. As
these animals far surpassed in size their diminutive
existing representatives, so the gigantic Marsupials
of the corresponding period in Australia
(Pleistocene, or latest Tertiary), such as Diprotodon
and Nototherium, greatly exceeded any of the
species now existing on that continent; of
Diprotodon a complete skeleton is exhibited. On the
other hand, all the Mammals of the earlier
geological periods of which remains are known are
of diminutive size, as seen in the series of jaws,
teeth, etc., mostly from the Purbeck (Upper Oolite)
beds of Dorset and the Stonesfield Slate (Great
Oolite) of Oxfordshire, exhibited in the centre
window-case on the east side of the room.

Fig. 47.—Skull of Samotherium boissieri, an

Extinct Okapi-like Ruminant from the
Pliocene Strata of Samos. About ⅙ th
natural size.
Extinct Birds. The south side of this room (right on entering)
is chiefly reserved for the remains of extinct Birds,
including the famous Lizard-tailed Bird
(Archæopteryx) of the Solenhofen beds of Bavaria
(fig. 48), the oldest known member of the class.
Although presenting many Reptile-like characters, it
had well-developed feathers on the wings and tail,
the impressions of which are beautifully preserved
in the specimen. A series of skeletons of the
“Moas,” or Dinornithidæ, of New Zealand, birds in
which no trace of a wing has been discovered,
shows the diversity in size of different members of
the group, some far exceeding any existing Ostrich,
while others are scarcely larger than a good-sized
Turkey. Some of these remains are so recent as still
to be covered with dried skin, and even feathers.
Several eggs are also shown; but, large as these
are, they are greatly exceeded in size by those of
the Roc (Æpyornis) from Madagascar. The skull and
certain other remains of a gigantic extinct bird,
Phororhachos, from Patagonia are also shown in
this room. These birds appear to have been allied
to the existing South American Seriema.
Fig. 48.—Skeleton and Impressions of the Features of the Lizard-
tailed Bird (Archæopteryx macrura), from the Upper Jurassic
(Lithographic Stone) of Solenhofen, Bavaria. About ¼th
natural size.
 Fig. 49.—Skeleton of the Iguanodon (Iguanodon
bernissartensis), a Biped Dinosaur from the
Wealden of Belgium. About 1/80th natural
size.

Extinct The long corridor north of the fossil Mammal-

Reptiles. gallery contains a fine assemblage of Reptilian
remains. The south side is devoted to the Great
Sea-Lizards (Sauropterygia and Ichthyopterygia),
mostly from the Lias formation. The skeleton of an
Ichthyosaur from the Lias is shown in fig. 50.
Skeletons of Plesiosaurians and Pliosaurians from
the Oxford Clay are mounted in central cases.
Ranged in the cases on the north side are remains
of the gigantic Dinosaurs, which vastly exceeded in
size any other land-animals. A mounted plaster cast
of a complete skeleton of the Iguanodon (fig. 49),
found (with many others) in the Wealden strata at
Bernissart in Belgium, is exhibited in the gallery of
recent Reptiles; but a large series of bones of the
same reptile is shown here.
 Fig. 50.—Skeleton of an Ichthyosaur
(Ichthyosaurus tenuirostris). From the Lias
of Somersetshire. About 1/10th natural size.

In the centre of this gallery is placed a large

portion of the skeleton of a gigantic Dinosaur
(Cetiosaurus leedsi) from the Upper Jurassic Oxford
Clay near Peterborough. It is nearly allied to the
North American Diplodocus, of which, as mentioned
on page 57, the model of a complete skeleton is
exhibited in the recent Reptile Gallery. Both
Cetiosaurus and Diplodocus resemble Brontosaurus
(fig. 51) in the extremely small size of the skull.
Another central case contains an actual skull and
other remains of the American Cretaceous horned
Dinosaur Triceratops (see page 57), and in wall-
case 8 is placed a plaster cast of the skull of the
contemporary Tyrannosaurus, the largest known
carnivorous Dinosaur.
At the eastern end of the gallery are the
Pterosauria or Ornithosauria, commonly called
Pterodactyles or Flying Reptiles. Their most gigantic
representatives were the species of Pteranodon
from the Upper Cretaceous of Kansas (fig. 53). At
the west end is the nearly complete skeleton of
Pariasaurus (fig. 52) from the Karoo formation
(Trias) of South Africa. It occurs also in Russia, and
belongs to a primitive section of the Theromorphs,
or Anomodonts, which include the ancestors of
Mammals.

Fig. 51.—Skeleton of Brontosaurus ingens, a four-footed

Dinosaur from the Jurassic formation of N. America. 1/150
natural size.
 Fig. 52.—Skeleton of Pariasaurus. About 1/14th natural size.

Extinct Fishes. Of the galleries running northwards from the

Fossil Reptile gallery, the one nearest to the central
hall is used for the display of the Fossil Fishes,
many belonging to groups now extinct. Perhaps the
most remarkable of all, and certainly most unlike
existing forms, are the armoured Devonian Fishes
known as Cephalaspis, Pterichthys (fig. 54), etc.
The well-preserved fishes from the Chalk are
especially noteworthy, and a specimen of Portheus
in a central case, 14 feet in length, is one of the
largest bony fishes known.
 Fig. 53.—A Giant Pterodactyle (Pteranodon occidentalis) from
the Cretaceous of Kansas. (Original span about 18 feet.)
Compare the wing, which is supported by the outermost
finger, with that of the Bat in Fig. 8.

Extinct The next gallery contains the Cephalopods, a

Invertebrates group of Molluscs abounding in extinct species, of
and Plants.
which the Belemnites, Turrilites (fig. 55), and
Ammonites (fig. 56) are some of the best-known.
The form and structure of their nearest living
representatives, the various species of Cuttle-fishes,
Squids, Argonauts, and Nautilus (fig. 31, page 62)
are illustrated by models, drawings, and specimens
placed near the entrance of the gallery and along
the top-line of the wall-cases. The third gallery
contains the remaining Mollusca, with the
Brachiopoda, Polyzoa, Echinoderma, Worms, and
Crustacea; the fourth, the Corals, Sponges,
Protozoa, and Fossil Plants. In these last two
galleries most of the British specimens are placed in
the table-cases, and those of foreign origin in the
cases round the walls.
Among numerous other groups which cannot
be mentioned, great interest attaches to the
Trilobites (fig. 57) of the Palæozoic epoch, which
are related to the modern King-Crabs and also have
affinity with the Scorpions.
 Very extensive is the collection of Fossil Plants
from the Coal-Measures, among which
Lepidodendron and Sigillaria, as well as numerous
kinds of fern-like leaves, are among the most
common.

Fig. 54.—Upper (A) and Lower (B) Surfaces of Pterichthys, an

armoured Devonian fish.

Historical The table-cases of the end gallery contain

Collections. certain special collections of historical interest,
either from the circumstances under which they
were formed, or the manner in which they came
into possession of the Museum, or from their
containing a large number of type specimens
described and figured in various publications. Hence
it has been considered undesirable to break up and
disperse these among the general collection. They
include the original collection formed by William
Smith, the pioneer of geology in this country, the
Searles Wood collection of Crag Mollusca, the
Edwards collection of Eocene Mollusca, the
Davidson collection of Brachiopoda, the types of
Sowerby’s “Mineral Conchology,” and lastly, but not
least in interest, specimens from the collection of
Sir Hans Sloane, which formed part of the nucleus
of the British Museum.

Fig. 55.—A Turrilite, from the

Chalk.

Fig. 56.—An Ammonite, from the

Oölite.