Farheen Zoya: Bc200407689

Iqra majeed: Bc200411284

Anam Naz: Bc200413927
Esha kanwal BC200400468
Amina Noor BC200403381
Tariq shariq BC200400669

1. Group:
Let G be a set together with a binary operation (usually called
multiplication) that assigns to each ordered pair (a, b) of elements of G
an element in G denoted by ab. We say G is a group under this
operation if the following three properties are satisfied.
1. Associativity. The operation is associative; that is, (ab)c 5 a(bc) for
all a, b, c in G.
2. Identity. There is an element e (called the identity) in G such that ae
5 ea 5 a for all a in G.
3. Inverses. For each element a in G, there is an element b in G (called
an inverse of a) such that ab 5 ba 5 e.
In words, then, a group is a set together with an associative operation
such that there is an identity, every element has an inverse, and any
pair of elements can be combined without going outside the set.
EXAMPLE # 1:
The set of integers Z (so denoted because the German word for
numbers is Zahlen), the set of rational numbers Q (for quotient), and
the set of real numbers R are all groups under ordinary addition. In
each case, the identity is 0 and the inverse of a is 2a.
EXAMPLE 2:
 The subset {1, -1, i, 2i} of the complex numbers is a group under
complex multiplication. Note that -1 is its own inverse, whereas the
inverse of i is 2i, and vice versa.
EXAMPLE 3 :
The set Q+ of positive rational is a group under ordinary multiplication.
The inverse of any a is 1/a = a-1.

2. Subgroup:
If a subset H of a group G is itself a group under the operation of G, we
say that H is a subgroup of G.
We use the notation H ≤ G to mean that H is a subgroup of G. If we
want to indicate that H is a subgroup of G but is not equal to G itself,
we write H, G. Such a subgroup is called a proper subgroup. The
subgroup {e} is called the trivial subgroup of G; a subgroup that is not
{e} is called a nontrivial subgroup of G. Notice that Zn under addition
modulo n is not a subgroup of Z under addition, since addition modulo
n is not the operation of Z.
Example#1:
For any element a from a group, we let <a> denote the set {an | nɛZ}.
In particular, observe that the exponents of a include all negative
integers as well as 0 and the positive integers (a0 is defined to be the
identity).
Example#2:
In Z10, <2>={2, 4, 6, 8, 0}. Remember, an means na when the
operation is addition.
Example#3:
In Z, <-2> = Z. Here each entry in the list . . . , -2(-1), -1(-1), 0(-1), 1(-
1), 2(-1), . . . represents a distinct group element.

3.Properties of subgroups:
 Subgroups are subsets of a group that themselves form a group under
the same operation. Here are the key properties and theorems related
to subgroups:
• Closure: If H is a subgroup of G, and a,b∈H, then a⋅b∈H (closure
under the group operation).
• Identity Element: The identity element of 𝐺 is also the identity
element of any subgroup 𝐻 of 𝐺.
• Inverses: If 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺, and a∈H, then the inverse a−1∈H.
• Associativity: The group operation in 𝐻 is associative since it is
inherited from the associativity of the group 𝐺.

Properties of Center and Centerlizer:

Property of Center:
1. Subgroup:
The center 𝑍(𝐺) is a subgroup of 𝐺. This means it satisfies the
subgroup criteria: it contains the identity element, is closed under the
group operation, and contains inverses.
• Identity: The identity element 𝑒 of 𝐺 is in 𝑍(𝐺)Z(G) since
𝑒𝑔=𝑔𝑒=𝑔 for all 𝑔∈𝐺.
• Closure: If𝑧1,𝑧2∈𝑍(𝐺) then for any 𝑔∈𝐺,
(𝑧1𝑧2)𝑔=𝑧1(𝑧2𝑔)=𝑧1(𝑔𝑧2)=(𝑧1𝑔)𝑧2=(𝑔𝑧1)𝑧2=𝑔(𝑧1𝑧2),
showing that 𝑧1𝑧2∈𝑍(𝐺)z1z2∈Z(G).
• Inverses: If 𝑧∈𝑍(𝐺), then for any 𝑔∈𝐺,
(𝑧−1)𝑔=𝑧−1(𝑔𝑧)𝑧−1=𝑧−1(𝑧𝑔)𝑧−1=𝑧−1𝑧(𝑔𝑧−1)=𝑔𝑧−1,
showing that 𝑧−1∈𝑍(𝐺)z−1∈Z(G).
2. Abelian Subgroup:
The center 𝑍(𝐺) is an abelian subgroup, meaning every pair of
elements in 𝑍(𝐺) commutes with each other. This is a direct
consequence of the definition since all elements of 𝑍(𝐺) commute
with all elements of 𝐺, including each other.
3. Normal Subgroup:
 The center 𝑍(𝐺) is a normal subgroup of 𝐺. This means for any 𝑔∈𝐺 and any
𝑧∈𝑍(𝐺), the element 𝑔𝑧𝑔−1 is in 𝑍(𝐺). This follows because:
𝑔𝑧𝑔−1=𝑧𝑔𝑔−1=𝑧⋅𝑒=𝑧,
showing 𝑔𝑧𝑔−1=𝑧∈𝑍(𝐺)gzg−1=z∈Z(G).
4. Intersection with Conjugacy Classes:
Elements of the center are precisely those elements that lie in their
own conjugacy classes. If 𝑔∈𝑍(𝐺), then for any 𝑥∈𝐺, 𝑥𝑔𝑥−1=𝑔.
Examples
• Abelian Group: If 𝐺 is an abelian group, then every element
commutes with every other element, so 𝑍(𝐺)=𝐺.
• Non-Abelian Group: For the symmetric group 𝑆3, the center 𝑍(𝑆3)
consists only of the identity element 𝑒 because no non-identity
element commutes with all other elements in 𝑆3.
• Dihedral Group: For the dihedral group 𝐷4 (symmetries of a
square), the center 𝑍(𝐷4) consists of the identity element and the
180-degree rotation.

Properties of Centerlizer:
1. Subgroup: 𝐶𝐺(𝑆) is a subgroup of 𝐺. This means it contains the
identity element, is closed under the group operation, and contains
inverses.
• Identity:
The identity element 𝑒e of 𝐺G commutes with every element of 𝑆S,
so 𝑒∈𝐶𝐺(𝑆).
• Closure: If 𝑔1,𝑔2∈𝐶𝐺(𝑆), then for any 𝑠∈𝑆,
(𝑔1𝑔2)𝑠=𝑔1(𝑔2𝑠)=𝑔1(𝑠𝑔2)=(𝑔1𝑠)𝑔2=(𝑠𝑔1)𝑔2=𝑠(𝑔1𝑔2),
showing that 𝑔1𝑔2∈𝐶𝐺(𝑆)g1g2∈CG(S).
• Inverses: If 𝑔∈𝐶𝐺(𝑆)g∈CG(S), then for any 𝑠∈𝑆,
(𝑔−1)𝑠=𝑔−1(𝑠𝑔)𝑔−1=𝑔−1(𝑔𝑠)𝑔−1=𝑔−1𝑔(𝑠𝑔−1)=𝑠𝑔−1,
(g−1)s=g−1(sg)g−1=g−1(gs)g−1=g−1g(sg−1)=sg−1,
• showing that 𝑔−1∈𝐶𝐺(𝑆)g−1∈CG(S).
2. Normalizer:
 The centralizer 𝐶𝐺(𝑆) is contained within the normalizer 𝑁𝐺(𝑆), which consists of
elements 𝑔∈𝐺 such that 𝑔𝑆𝑔−1=𝑆.
3. Relation to the Center:
The center 𝑍(𝐺) of 𝐺 is the centralizer of the entire group G:
𝑍(𝐺)=𝐶𝐺(𝐺)={𝑔∈𝐺∣∀ℎ∈𝐺, 𝑔ℎ=ℎ𝑔}.
4. Commutativity:
If 𝑔∈𝐶𝐺(𝑎), then 𝑔 commutes with 𝑎. This property extends to larger subsets:
𝐶𝐺(𝑆)=⋂𝑠∈𝑆𝐶𝐺(𝑠).

4. Co-sets:
Let G be a group and let H be a nonempty subset of G. For any aεG, the

set {ah | hε H} is denoted by aH. Analogously, Ha ={ha | hεH} and

aHa-1={aha-1 | hεH}. When H is a subgroup of G, the set aH is called

the left coset of H in G containing a, whereas Ha is called the right
coset of H in G containing a. In this case, the element a is called the
coset Representative of aH (or Ha). We use |aH| to denote the number
of elements in the set aH, and |Ha| to denote the number of elements
in Ha.
EXAMPLE #1:
Let G =S3 and H = {(1), (13)}. Then the left cosets of
H in G are
(1)H =H,
(12)H = {(12), (12)(13)} = {(12), (132)} = (132)H,
(13)H = {(13), (1)} = H,

5. Cayley's Theorem:-
In group theory, cayley's theorem named in honour of ather cayley ,states that:-

Every group G is isomorphic to a subgroup of symmetric group.

More specificaly G is isomorphic to a subgroup of the symmetric group sym(G)

whose elements are the permutations underlying set of G.

Proof:-
Let us define g : G →G by (x)=gx , x G

I. Well defined:-
Let x=y
gx=gy
(x)= (y)
Which shows (x) is well defined.
II. One-one:-
Let (x)= (y)
Gx=gy
X=y
Which shows that (x) is one - one.
III.On-to-function:-
For gx there is show that
X Such that
(x)=g(x)
Which shows every element of G has some image in G here (x) is on-to
function.
Note:-
It is clear that (x) which is bijective mapping is a permutation.

6. Langrage Theorem:-

The order of each subgroup of a finite group is a divisor of the order of the
group.

o(G)=n

o(H)=m

n/m m is a divisor of n.
In the mathematical fiels, of group theory langrange's theorem is a theorem that
states that for any finite group G, the order of every subgroup of G divides the
ordser of G. The theorem is named after joseph loius lagrange.

The following variant states taht for a subgroup H of a finite group G not only is
mode of G is divisible by mode of H an integer but its value is the index [G:H],
defined as the number of left cosets of H in G.

0 4 H

1 5 1+H

2 6 2+H

3 7 3+H

Proof:-

The left cosets of H in G are the equivalence classes of a certain equivalence

relation on G specifically call x and y in G equivalent if there exists H in h such
that x=yh. Therefore the left cosets from a partition of G. Each laft coset aH has
the same cardinality asH because x implies ax defines a bijection H implies aH.
The number left cosets isof the index [G:H]. By the previous three sentences

7. The Dihedral group:

The analysis carried out above for a square can similarly be done for an
equilateral triangle or regular pentagon or, indeed, any regular n-
gon(n≥ 3). The corresponding group is denoted by Dn and is called the
dihedral group of order 2n.
The dihedral groups arise frequently in art and nature. Many of the
decorative designs used on floor coverings, pottery, and buildings have
one of the dihedral groups as a group of symmetry. Chrysler’s logo has
D5 as a symmetry group, and that of Mercedes-Benz has D3. The
ubiquitous five-pointed star has symmetry group D5. The phylum
Echinodermata contains many sea animals (such as starfish, sea
cucumbers, feather stars, and sand dollars) that exhibit patterns with
D5 symmetry. Chemists classify molecules according to their symmetry.
Moreover, symmetry considerations are applied in orbital calculations,
in determining energy levels of atoms and molecules, and in the study
of molecular vibrations. The symmetry group of a pyramidal molecule
such as ammonia (NH3), depicted in Figure 1.2, is D3.

Mineralogists determine the internal structures of crystals (that is, rigid

bodies in which the particles are arranged in three-dimensional
repeating patterns—table salt and table sugar are two examples) by
studying two-dimensional x-ray projections of the atomic makeup of
the crystals. The symmetry present in the projections reveals the
internal symmetry of the crystals themselves. Commonly occurring
symmetry patterns are D4 and D6 (see Figure 1.3). Interestingly, it is
mathematically impossible for a crystal to possess a Dn symmetry
pattern
with n =5 or n >6.
 The dihedral group of order 2n is often called the group of symmetries of
a regular n-gon.

8. Equivalence relation:
An equivalence relation on a set S is a set R of ordered pairs of elements
of S such that
1. (a, a) [ R for all a [ S (reflexive property).
2. (a, b) [ R implies (b, a) [ R (symmetric property).
3. (a, b) [ R and (b, c) [ R imply (a, c) [ R (transitive property).

R is an equivalence relation on a set S, it is customary to write aRb instead of (a, b) [ R.

Also, since an equivalence relation is just a generalization of equality, a suggestive symbol
such as <, ;, or , is usually used to denote the relation. Using this notation, the three
conditions for an equivalence relation become a , a; a , b implies b , a; and a , b and b , c
imply a , c. If , is an equivalence relation on a set S and a [ S, then the set [a] 5 {x [ S | x , a}
is called the equivalence class of S containing a.
EXAMPLE # 1:

Let S be the set of all triangles in a plane. If a,b εS, define a, b if a and b are similar—that is,
if a and b have corresponding angles that are the same. Then, is an equivalence
relatiSymbolicall9

9. Automorphism:

Definition:
An isomorphism from a group G onto itself is called an automorphism of G. An automorphism
mapping of a group G onto G itself is also called an automorphism of G.

Symbolically:

Examples:

Example#01:

The function from C to C given by (a+bi)=a-bi is an automorphism of the group of complex

numbers under addition. The restriction of to is also an automorphism of the group of non-
zero complex numbers under multiplication.

Example#02:

Let . Then, (a,b)=(b,a) is an automorphism of the

group under componentwise addition. Geometrically, reflects each point in the plane across
the line y=x. More generally, any reflection across a line passing through the origin or any rotation of

the plane about the origin is an automorphism of . The isomorphism is a particular instance of an
automorphism that arises often enough to warrant a name and notation of its own.

10.Group action:
A powerful tool both within algebra and other areas of mathematics is
the notion of a group action. There are two equivalent ways in which the
characterize a group action. We begin with the more “constructive” one.

Let G be group and S be a non empty set then (external

composition) then defines action of G on S if

Which satisfy the following properties.

G acts on S through f.
Group Actions and Examples:

Definition:
A powerful tool both within algebra and other areas of mathematics is the notion of a group action.

Explanation:
There are two equivalent ways in which the characterize a group action. We begin with the more
"constructive" one.

Let G be group and S be a non-empty set then (external composition) then defines

action of G on S if .

Which satisfy the following properties.

G acts on S throgh f.

Example:

For J.N Henstein students:

11.Orbits and stablizers
Let f :G × S → S ; f ( g , a )=g . a is a group action.

The relation defined so is an equivalence relation. Hence it will

partition the set S into equivalence classes and these classes are called
Orbits.

Orb ( a ) =cl ( a )= { g . a : g ∈G } , a ∈ S

Stabilizer:

Sta ( a )={ g ∈G :g .a=a } a∈ S

And sta ( a ) <G

Proof:
∵ e . a=a ∀ a ∈ S

 e ∈ Sta ( a )
 sta ( a ) ≠ ∅

Let:

g1 , g 2 ∈ Sta ( a )

 g1 . a=a , g2 . a=a => −1

a=g . a
Now,
−1
g1 g 1 a=g1 a=a

 g1 g 1−1 ∈ Sta ( a )
 Stab ( a )< G

12.A Motivating Problem

When we are in a business of necklace making which are made by
stringing together round beads that may be in two colours (White or
black). The question arise that with these two different colours, how many
distinct necklaces with a fixed number of beads (say 8) can be made?

Before going to our original problem, let us do some enumeration:

We start with a smaller number, say 1, 2 or 3 and so on.

But first we can paste a formula using permutation for this necklace
problem.
 Number of necklaces made=2n
 Where n is any whole number.
 With a single bead: with a single bead there would be two necklaces.
Either of white bead or black bead.
i.e: 2n=2 1=2
 With two beads: with two beads, the number of necklaces made would
be:
 2n=2 2=4
 Similarly we can find the number of necklaces made by 3 or 4 beads.
n 5
 And if the number of beads is five then: 2 =2 =32 possible necklaces.
Now move to our original problem of 8 beads.
 Now we can easily pose that necklaces made using eight beads of two
different colours would be:
 2n=2 8=256
 This necklace problem teaches that there is always a possibility of solving
a problem in more than one ways.