5.

List of Important Results - Class Equation of Groups

5.1 Definition Conjugate Element in a Group: Let 𝐺 be a group, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺. Then 𝑏 is said to
be conjugate to 𝑎, if 𝑏 = 𝑥𝑎𝑥 −1 for some 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺

5.2 Definition Relation of Conjugacy: Let 𝐺 be a group, and 𝑆 be the relation on 𝐺 given by 𝑏 is
related to 𝑎 iff 𝑏 is conjugate to 𝑎. Then 𝑆 is an equivalence relation defined on 𝐺.

5.3 Definition Conjugacy Classes: The equivalence class of the relation of conjugacy 𝑖. 𝑒. for 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
𝑐𝑙(𝑎) = {𝑥𝑎𝑥 −1 : 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺} is called conjugate class of 𝑎 in 𝐺.

5.4 Definition Self-Conjugate Element: Let 𝐺 be a group then 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 is called self-conjugate

element of G if a is conjugate to itself only 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑐𝑙(𝑎) = {𝑥𝑎𝑥 −1 : 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺} = {𝑎}

5.5 Definition Centre of a Group: A subset of 𝐺 denoted by 𝑍(𝐺) is called the Centre of of a group
𝐺 if it contains all the element of G that commute with every element of 𝐺 i.e.,
𝑍(𝐺) = {𝑎 ∈ 𝐺|𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥𝑎 ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐺}

 𝑍(𝐺) is a subgroup of 𝐺

 (𝑍 (𝑍 (𝑍 (𝑍 (𝐺))))) = 𝑍(𝐺).

 𝐺 is abelian 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑍(𝐺) = 𝐺.

Ex: 𝑍(ℤ𝑛 ) = ℤ𝑛 , 𝑍(ℤ) = ℤ , 𝑍(ℚ) = ℚ , 𝑍(ℝ) = ℝ , 𝑍(ℂ) = ℂ

5.5.1 Centre of some important Groups:

𝑎 0 … 0
 If 𝐺 = 𝐺𝐿𝑛 (ℝ) for 𝑛 > 1, then 𝑍(𝐺) = {𝐴 = [ 0 𝑎 … ⋮ ] |0 ≠ 𝑎 ∈ ℝ} 𝑎nd
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ 0
0 … 0 𝑎 𝑛×𝑛
𝑂 (𝑍(𝐺𝐿𝑛 (ℝ))) = ∞

𝑎 0 … 0
 If 𝐺 = 𝐺𝐿𝑛 (𝐹)𝑞 for 𝑛 > 1, then 𝑍(𝐺) = {𝐴 = [ 0 𝑎 … ⋮ ] |0 ≠ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐹𝑞 }
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ 0
0 … 0 𝑎 𝑛×𝑛
Where 𝐹𝑞 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑞 = {0, 1, 2, … , 𝑞 − 1} also 𝑂 (𝑍 (𝐺𝐿𝑛 (𝐹𝑞 ))) = 𝑞 − 1

𝑎 0 … 0
 If 𝐺 = 𝑆𝐿𝑛 (ℝ), for 𝑛 > 1, then 𝑍(𝐺) = {𝐴 = [ 0 𝑎 … ⋮ ] |0 ≠ 𝑎 ∈ ℝ, |𝐴| = 1} and
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ 0
0 … 0 𝑎 𝑛×𝑛
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
𝑂 (𝑍(𝑆𝐿𝑛 (ℝ))) = {
2 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
 𝑎 0 … 0
 If 𝐺 = 𝑆𝐿𝑛 (𝐹𝑞 ), for 𝑛 > 1, then 𝑍(𝐺) = {𝐴 = [ 0 𝑎 … ⋮ ] |0 ≠ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐹𝑞 }
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ 0
0 … 0 𝑎 𝑛×𝑛
and 𝑂 (𝑍 (𝑆𝐿𝑛 (𝐹𝑞 ))) == gcd(𝑛, 𝑞 − 1)

𝑎 0 … 0
 If 𝐺 = 𝑆𝐿𝑛 (ℂ) for 𝑛 > 1, then 𝑍(𝐺) = {𝐴 = [ 0 𝑎 … ⋮ ] |0 ≠ 𝑎 ∈ ℂ} and
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ 0
0 … 0 𝑎 𝑛×𝑛
𝑂 (𝑍(𝑆𝐿𝑛 (ℂ))) = 𝑛

5.6 Definition Centralizer or Normalizer of a in 𝑮: Let 𝑎 be a fixed element of a group 𝐺 The

centralizer (normalizer) of 𝑎 in 𝐺 denoted by 𝐶(𝑎) or 𝑁(𝑎) and it is the set of all elements in 𝐺 that
commute with 𝑎 i.e, 𝑁(𝑎) or 𝐶(𝑎) = {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺|𝑎𝑔 = 𝑔𝑎}
 𝑍(𝐺) is a subgroup 𝑁(𝑎) or 𝐶(𝑎) of 𝐺

List of Important Properties related to conjugacy:

If 𝐺 be a group then
 𝑐𝑙(𝑒) = {𝑒}
 𝐺 = ⋃𝑎∈𝐺 𝑐𝑙(𝑎)
 Every non-trivial group has at least two conjugate classes
 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 is self-conjugate iff 𝑎 ∈ 𝑍(𝐺) hence we have alternate definition of
 The collection of self-conjugate elements of any group form subgroup of that group and is called the
center of that group
 Every element of an abelian group is self-conjugate element.
 𝐺 is abelian 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝐺 = 𝑍(𝐺)
 𝑎 ∈ 𝑐𝑙(𝑎) iff a ∈ 𝑍(𝐺)
 𝑍(𝐺) = ⋂𝑎∈𝐺 𝑁(𝑎)
 If 𝐺 be a group and 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺. If 𝑎 is conjugate to 𝑏. Then 𝑜(𝑎) = 𝑜(𝑏).
 If 𝑏 ∈ 𝑐𝑙(𝑎) ⟹ o(b) = o(a) converse need not be true
 If 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 is the only element of order of 2 ⟹ 𝑎 is a self-conjugate element ⟹ 𝑎 ∈ 𝑍(𝐺) ⇒ 𝑍(𝐺) has
at least two elements
 If 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 is only element of order of 2. Then 𝐺 has at least two conjugate classes each of cardinality
one ⇒ order of 𝑍(𝐺) even (provided finite)
 If 𝐺 be a finite group. Then 𝑂(𝐺) = ∑𝑎∈𝐺|𝑐𝑙(𝑎)| 𝑠. 𝑡. ∩ 𝑐𝑙(𝑎) = 
 If 𝐺 be a finite group Then ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 there is one-to-one correspondence between cosets of 𝑁(𝑎) and
𝑂(𝐺)
𝑐𝑙(𝑎) i.e, 𝑂(𝑁(𝑎)) = |𝑐𝑙(𝑎)|
𝑛
 Let 𝐺 be a finite group of order 𝑛. Then the largest possible cardinality of any conjugate class is [ ],
2
where [𝑛] denotes the greatest integer function.
 𝑎 ∈ 𝑍(𝐺) 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑁(𝑎) = 𝐺
 𝑎 ∉ 𝑍(𝐺) 𝑖𝑓𝑓 |𝑐𝑙(𝑎)| ≥ 2
𝑂(𝐺)
 If 𝐺 be a finite group, then 𝑂(𝐺) = 𝑂(𝑍(𝐺)) + ∑ 𝑎∈𝐺
𝑂(𝑁(𝑎))
𝑠. 𝑡. ∩ 𝑐𝑙(𝑎) = 
𝑎 ∉ 𝑍(𝐺)
5.7 Definition Class Equation: Let 𝐺 be a finite group of order say,𝑛, 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑜(𝐺) = 𝑛, and 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , … 𝑐𝑘 ,
be 𝑘-distinct conjugate classes of cardinality 𝑛1 , 𝑛2 , … , 𝑛𝑘 respectively. Then the expression 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 +
⋯ + 𝑛𝑘 , is defined as class equation of 𝐺 and also 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 + ⋯ + 𝑛𝑘 = 𝑛 = 𝑜(𝐺).

𝑛−𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠
 If 𝐺 is abelian & 𝑂(𝐺) = 𝑛 then the class equation of 𝐺 is ⏞
1 + 1 + 1 + ⋯+ 1
𝑛
 Let 𝐺 be a finite group such that 𝑂(𝐺) = 𝑝 ; 𝑛 > 1 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑍(𝐺)) ≥ 𝑝, where 𝑝 is prime number
 If 𝑂(𝐺) = 𝑝2 then 𝐺 is abelian, where 𝑝 is a prime number
 Two non-isomorphic group can have same class Equation (𝐾4 & ℤ4 )
 Every non - abelian group has at least two conjugate classes

5.8 Class Equation of some important Groups:

5.8.1 𝑶(𝑮) = 𝒑𝟑 & 𝑮 is non – abelian (𝒑 − 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆), then
 𝑂(𝑍(𝐺)) = 𝑝
 ∀ 𝑎 ∉ 𝑍(𝐺), 𝑜(𝑁(𝑎)) = 𝑝2
 For all 𝑎 ∉ 𝑍(𝐺), |𝑐(𝑎)| = 𝑝
 Number of conjugate classes of cardinality one is 𝑝
 Number of conjugate classes of cardinality 𝑝 are 𝑝2 − 1
 Total number of conjugate classes of 𝐺 are 𝑝2 + 𝑝 − 1
𝑝−𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 (𝑝2 + 𝑝 −1)−𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠
 Class equation of 𝐺 is 𝑝 = 𝑜(𝐺) = ⏞
3
1 + 1+. . . +1 + ⏞
𝑝 + 𝑝+. . . +𝑝

Ex: 𝑸𝟖 ; Class equation of 𝑸𝟖 is

2
2−𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 (𝑝 −1)=3−𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠
𝑜(𝑄8 ) = 23 = ⏞
1 + 1+. . . ⏞
2+2+2

5.8.2 𝑶(𝑮) = 𝟐. 𝒑 (Where 𝒑 is odd prime number) and G - Non abelian:

 𝑂(𝑍(𝐺)) = 1
 For all 𝑎 ∉ 𝑍(𝐺), 𝑜(𝑁(𝑎)) = 𝑝 or 2
 Converse of Lagrange's theorem is true for a group 𝐺
𝑝−1
 Number of conjugate classes of cardinality 2 are There are exactly ( 2
)
 Number of conjugate classes of cardinality 𝑝 is exactly one
𝑝+3
 Total number of conjugate classes are
2
𝑝−1
( )𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠
2

 Class equation of 𝐺 is 𝑜(𝐺) = 2𝑝 = ⏞

1 + 𝑝 + 2 + 2 + ⋯+ 2

Ex: Class Equation of 𝑆3 & 𝐷5 are 𝑜(𝑆3 ) = 2.3 = 1 + 3 + 2 and 𝑜(𝐷5 ) = 2.5 = 1 + 5 + 2 + 2
Respectively
 If 𝐺 is a group with trivial center, then the group 𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺) also has trivial center.
5.8.3 𝑮 = 𝑺𝒏 :
 All cycles of the same length in 𝑆𝑛 are conjugate
 If 𝜏1 and 𝜏2 are disjoint permutations in 𝑆𝑛 , then 𝜎𝜏1 𝜎 −1 & 𝜎𝜏2 𝜎 −1 are disjoint permutations for any
𝜎 ∈ 𝑆𝑛
 For any cycle (𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 … 𝑎𝑟 ), and 𝜎 ∈ 𝑆𝑛 , Then 𝜎(𝑎1 𝑎2 … . 𝑎𝑟 )𝜎 −1 = (𝜎(𝑎1 )𝜎(𝑎2 ). . 𝜎(𝑎𝑟 ))
 Any two permutations in 𝑆𝑛 are conjugate 𝑖𝑓𝑓 both have same cycle decomposition
 Number of Conjugate classes in 𝑆𝑛 = number of distinct cycle decompositions in 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑃(𝑛), Where
𝑃(𝑛) is number of partitions of 𝑛

Ex: Number of Conjugate classes in 𝑆4 = 5 and 𝑆5 = 7 as 𝑃(4) = 5 and 𝑃(5) = 7 respectively

 Let 𝜎 ∈ 𝑆𝑛 , has the cycle decomposition {𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , … , 𝑟𝑘 } and let 𝛼𝑖 be number of cycles of length 𝑟𝑖
then, the no. of elements with same C.D. same as 𝜎
𝑛!
= no. of element conjugates to 𝜎 = |𝑐𝑙(𝜎)| = 1𝛼1 ,2𝛼2 …𝑛𝛼𝑛 ,𝛼
1 !𝛼2 !…𝛼𝑛 !
𝑛, 𝑛 ≤ 2
 𝑂(𝑍(𝑺𝒏 )) = {
1, 𝑛 ≥ 3

 Detailed discussion of Class Equation of 𝑆𝑛 for 𝑛 = 3,4 and 5:

If 𝒏 = 𝟑
𝑆3 = {𝐼, (12), (13), (23), (123), (132) }, then

Partition of 3 Cyclic Decomposition Conjugacy Class Number of

Elements Elements

1+1+1 1 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 {𝐼} 1

1+2 2 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 {(12), (23), (13)} 3
3 3 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 {(123), (132)} 2

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑂(𝑆3 ) = 6 = 1 + 3 + 2 is the class equation of 𝑆3

If 𝒏 = 𝟒, then
𝑆4 = {𝐼, (12), (13), (14), (23), (24), (34), (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23), (123), (132), (124),
(142), (134), (143), (234), (243), (1234), (1432), (1324), (1423), (1243), (1342) } and

Partition of 4 Cyclic Conjugacy class elements Number of

Decomposition Elements
1+1+1+1 1 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 {𝐼} 1
2+1+1 2 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 {(12), (23), (34), (13), (14), (24)} 6
2+2 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 {(12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23)} 3
2 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
3+1 3 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 (123), (132), (124), (142), (134), 8
{ }
(143), (234), (243)
 4 4 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 (1234), (1243), (1432), (1324), 6
{ }
(1342), (1423)

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑂(𝑆4 ) = 24 = 1 + 6 + 3 + 8 + 6 is the class equation of 𝑆4

If 𝒏 = 𝟓, then

Partition of 5 Cyclic Decomposition Conjugacy class Number of Elements

elements
1+1+1+1+1 1 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 {𝐼} 1
2+1+1+1 2 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 10
2+2+1 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 15
2 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
3+1+1 3 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 20
3+2 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 20
3 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 and
2 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
4+1 4 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 30
5 5 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 24

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑂(𝑆5 ) = 120 = 1 + 10 + 15 + 20 + 20 + 30 + 24 is the class equation of 𝑆5

5.8.4 𝑮 = 𝑨𝒏:
 If 𝜎 and 𝜏 are conjugate in 𝑆𝑛 ⇏ 𝜎 and 𝜏 are conjugate in 𝐴𝑛
Ex: (123) & (132) are conjugate in 𝑆𝑛 but not conjugate in 𝐴𝑛
 If 𝜎 ∈ 𝐴𝑛 Then its conjugacy class in 𝐴𝑛 is either exactly same as the conjugacy class in 𝑆𝑛 or it breaks
into two conjugacy classes in 𝐴𝑛 of equal size
 If 𝜎 ∈ 𝐴𝑛 Then its conjugacy class in 𝐴𝑛 breaks into two conjugacy classes in 𝐴𝑛 of equal size if and
only if the cycle decomposition of 𝜎 contains distinct odd numbers
Ex:
𝑆4 = {𝐼, (12), (13), (14), (23), (24), (34), (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23), (123), (132), (124),
(142), (134), (143), (234), (243), (1234), (1432), (1324), (1423), (1243), (1342) };

𝑐𝑙((123)) = {(123), (132), (124), (142), (134), (143), (234), (243)} in 𝑆4 but
in 𝐴4 = {𝐼, (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23), (123), (132), (124), (142), (134), (143), (234), (243)},
𝑐𝑙((123)) = {(123), (124), (134), (234)}
𝑛, 2 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 3
 𝑂(𝑍(𝑨𝒏 )) = {
1, 𝑛 ≥ 4

 Detailed discussion of Class Equation of 𝐴𝑛 for 𝑛 = 3, 4,5:

If 𝒏 = 𝟑,
𝐴3 = {𝐼, (123), (132)}, then
 Partition of 3 Cyclic Decomposition Conjugacy Class Number of
Elements Elements

1+1+1 1 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 {𝐼} 1

1+2 2 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 × 0
3 3 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 {(123), (132)} 2

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑂(𝐴3 ) = 3 = 1 + 1 + 1 is the class equation of 𝐴3

If 𝒏 = 𝟒,
𝐴4 = {𝐼, (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23), (123), (132), (124), (142), (134), (143), (234), (243)}, then

Partition of 4 Cyclic Conjugacy class elements Number of

Decomposition Elements
1+1+1+1 1 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 {𝐼} 1
2+1+1 2 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 × 0
2+2 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 {(12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23)} 3
2 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
3+1 3 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 (123), (132), (124), (142), (134), 8
{ }
(143), (234), (243)
4 4 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 × 0

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑂(𝐴4 ) = 12 = 1 + 3 + 4 + 4 is the class equation of 𝐴4

If 𝒏 = 𝟓, then

Partition of 5 Cyclic Decomposition Conjugacy class Number of Elements

elements
1+1+1+1+1 1 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 {𝐼} 1
2+1+1+1 2 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 × 0
2+2+1 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 15
2 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
3+1+1 3 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 20
3+2 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 × 0
3 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 and
2 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
4+1 4 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 × 0
5 5 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 24

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑂(𝐴5 ) = 60 = 1 + 15 + 20 + 12 + 12 is the class equation of 𝐴5

5.8.5 𝑮 = 𝑫𝒏 :
 𝑛+6
2
, 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
 Number of conjugacy classes in 𝐷𝑛 = { 𝑛+3
2
, 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
𝑛−2
( ) 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠
2
𝑛 𝑛
1+1+2+2+⏞
2 + 2 + ⋯ + 2 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
 Class equation of 𝐷𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜(𝐷𝑛 ) = 2𝑛 = 𝑛−1
( ) 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠
2

{ ⏞
1 + 𝑛 + 2 + 2 + ⋯ + 2 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
 𝑜(𝑍(𝐷𝑛 ))(𝑛 ≤ 2) = 2𝑛
2, 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
 𝑜(𝑍(𝐷𝑛 ))(𝑛 ≥ 3) = {
1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑

6. List of Important Results - Normal Subgroups and

Quotient Groups
6.1 Conjugacy of Subgroups:
Let 𝐺 be a group, 𝐻 be subgroup of 𝐺 and any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 the set 𝑎𝐻𝑎−1 = {𝑎ℎ𝑎−1 : ℎ ∈ 𝐻} is a subgroup of 𝐺
and conjugate of 𝐻.
𝑖. 𝑒. Two subgroups 𝐻 and 𝐾 are called conjugate if there exist 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝐾 = 𝑥𝐻𝑥 −1

6.2 Normal Subgroup:

𝐴 subgroup 𝐻 of a group 𝐺 is called an invariant subgroup (normal subgroup or normal divisor) of 𝐺 if
𝑔−1 ℎ𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 for all 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 and all ℎ ∈ 𝐻

 If 𝑋 = {𝐻|𝐻 < 𝐺} and we define a relation on 𝑋 𝑠. 𝑡. ∀ 𝐻, 𝐾 ∈ 𝑋; (𝐻, 𝐾) ∈ 𝑆 iff ∃ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 𝑠. 𝑡. 𝐾 =

𝑎−1 𝐻𝑎. This relation is called relation of conjugacy of subgroup and is an equivalence relation and
𝐶𝑙(𝐻) = {𝐾|𝐾 = 𝑎−1 𝐻𝑎; 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺}.
 𝐶𝑙(𝐻) = {𝐾|𝐾 = 𝑎−1 𝐻𝑎; 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺} = 𝐻 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝐻 is a normal subgroup of G and we can write as
𝐻∆𝐺
 𝐻𝑎 = 𝑎𝐻 ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝐻∆𝐺
 If 𝐻 < 𝐺 then 𝐻∆𝐺 iff ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺, ℎ ∈ 𝐻, 𝑔−1 ℎ𝑔 ∈ 𝐻
 Every non-trivial group 𝐺 has at least two invariant subgroups {𝑒}, and 𝐺 itself
 If 𝐺 be an Abelian/Cyclic group then ∀ 𝐻 < 𝐺, 𝐻∆𝐺 (converse need not be true Q8)
 If 𝐻 is a subgroup of index 2 then 𝐻∆𝐺
Ex: 𝐴𝑛 ∆ 𝑆𝑛 , ∀ 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁
 If 𝐻 is only subgroup 𝐺 of order it’s order then 𝐻∆𝐺
 If 𝐻 and 𝐾 be the normal subgroup of 𝐺 then 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 ∆ 𝐺
 If 𝐻 < 𝐺 & 𝐾 < 𝐺 𝑠. 𝑡. 𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝐻∆𝐺 𝑜𝑟 𝐾∆ 𝐺 then 𝐻𝐾 < 𝐺
 If 𝐻∆𝐺 and 𝐾∆𝐺 then 𝐻𝐾∆𝐺
 𝐻 is normal subgroup of 𝐺 and index of 𝐻 = 𝑚 ⇒ ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑥 𝑚 ∈ 𝐻
 𝐻 < 𝐺 𝑠. 𝑡. 𝑥 2 ∈ 𝐻, ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 ⇒ 𝐻∆𝐺
 If 𝐺 be any group, 𝑍(𝐺) be the centre of 𝐺 & 𝐻 < 𝑍(𝐺) then 𝐻∆𝐺
 𝑈 𝐶𝑙(𝑎) where 𝐶𝑙(𝑎) = {𝑥 −1 𝑎𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝐺}
If 𝐺 be any group & 𝐻 < 𝐺 then 𝐻∆𝐺 iff 𝐻 = ⏟
𝑎∈𝐻
𝑖. 𝑒. If 𝐻 < 𝐺 then 𝐻∆𝐺 iff 𝐻 can be written as the union of the classes of some of the elements of 𝐻.
If 𝐻 < 𝐺 then 𝐻 ⋫ 𝐺 if ∃ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 𝑠. 𝑡. 𝐶𝑙(𝑎) ⊈ 𝐻
 If 𝐻 & 𝐾 be the conjugate subgroup of group G then 𝐻 ≅ 𝐾 but converse need not to be true.
Ex: If 𝐾4 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏} 𝐻 = {𝑒, 𝑎} 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾 = {𝑒, 𝑏} be the are isomorphic subgroup of 𝐾4 , but they are not
conjugate

6.3 Definition
Proper Normal Subgroup: If 𝐺 be a group and 𝐻 be a subgroup of 𝐺 𝑠. 𝑡. 𝐻 ≠ {𝑒} 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 ≠ 𝐺
and 𝐻∆𝐺 Then 𝐻 is called a proper normal subgroup of 𝐺 otherwise called Improper Normal
Subgroup.

6.4 Definition
Simple Group: A group 𝐺 having no proper normal subgroup(s) then 𝐺 is called a simple group.
 Normal subgroups in 𝑆𝑛
 𝑆1 ≅ 𝑍1 ⟹ all subgroup normal
 𝑆2 ≅ 𝑍2 ⟹ all subgroup normal
 In 𝑆3 {𝐼}, 𝐴3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆3 are normal subgroups in 𝑆3
 In 𝑆4 {𝐼}, ≅ 𝐾4 = {𝐼, (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23)}, 𝐴4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆4 are normal subgroups in 𝑆4
 ∀ 𝑛 ≥ 5; {𝐼}, 𝐴𝑛 & 𝑆𝑛 are the exactly 3 normal subgroups in 𝑆𝑛 .
 ∀ 𝑛 ≥ 3; 𝑆𝑛 will never be a simple group.

 Normal subgroups in 𝐴𝑛 (𝑛 ≥ 2)
 𝐴2 ≅ 𝑍1 ⟹ all subgroup normal
 𝐴3 ≅ 𝑍3 ⟹ all subgroup normal
 In 𝐴4 → {𝐼}, ≅ 𝐾4 = {𝐼, (12)(34), (14)(23), (13)(29) & 𝐴4 are normal subgroups in 𝐴4 .
 ∀ 𝑛 ≥ 5, {𝐼} & 𝐴𝑛 are only two Normal subgroups of 𝐴𝑛 .
𝒊. 𝒆. ∀ 𝑛 ≥ 5, 𝐴𝑛 is a simple group.

 𝑆𝐿(𝑛, ℝ)∆ 𝐺𝐿(𝑛, ℝ)

𝐺 𝐺
6.5 Quotient Group: If 𝐺 be a group 𝐻∆𝐺 then 𝐻
= {𝐻𝑎 | a ∈ 𝐺} 𝒐𝒓 𝐻
= { 𝑎𝐻 | a ∈ 𝐺} is a group
𝐺 𝑂(𝐺)
under binary operation 𝐻𝑎. 𝐻𝑏 = 𝐻𝑎𝑏 and if G is finite the 𝑂 (𝐻) = 𝑂(𝐻).

ℤ
Ex: 𝑚ℤ ∆ ℤ ∀ 𝑚 ∈ ℤ then 𝑚ℤ = {ℤ, ℤ + 1, ℤ + 2, … , ℤ + (𝑚 − 1)} is a cyclic group of order 𝑚.

List of properties of a Quotient Group:

𝐺
 If 𝑜(𝐺) finite ⇒ 𝑜 (𝐻) is finite (Converse need not be true)
ℤ
Ex: 𝑚ℤ ∆ ℤ ∀ 𝑚 ∈ ℤ then 𝑚ℤ = {ℤ, ℤ + 1, ℤ + 2, … , ℤ + (𝑚 − 1)} is a cyclic group of order 𝑚
𝐺
 If 𝑜(𝑎) in 𝐺 is infinite ⇏ 𝑜(𝐻𝑎) in 𝐻 infinite
 ℤ ℤ
Ex: 2ℤ ∆ ℤ then 2ℤ = {ℤ, ℤ + 1} ≅ 𝑍2 & 𝑜(ℤ + 1) = 2 in 2ℤ but 𝑜(1) is infinite in ℤ
 If 𝑜(𝑎) = finite say (𝑛) then 𝑜(𝐻𝑎 )|𝜊(𝑎) & also 𝑜(𝐻𝑎 ) is finite
𝐺
 If 𝐺 is an abelian group ⇒ 𝐻 is also an abelian group (Converse need not be true)
𝐺
 If G is a cyclic group ⇒ 𝐻 is also a cyclic group (Converse need not be true)
Ex: 𝐺 = 𝑆3 , 𝐻 = 𝐴3
𝐴3 ∆ 𝑆3
𝐺 𝑆 𝑆 𝑆
𝐻
= 𝐴3 & 𝑜 (𝐴3 ) = 2 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐴3 ≅ 𝑧2
3 3 3
𝐺
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐻 is a cyclic group ⇏ G is also a cyclic group &
𝐺
𝐻
is an abelian group ⇏ G is an abelian group

𝐺
 If 𝐺 be any group & 𝑍(𝐺) is the centre of 𝐺 and 𝐻 < 𝑍(𝐺) then 𝐻∆𝐺 𝑎𝑛𝑑 If 𝐻 is cyclic ⇒ G-abelian
𝐺
 In particular if 𝐻 = 𝑍(𝐺) then 𝑍(𝐺) is cyclic ⇔ 𝐺 −abelian
ℚ
List of important properties of ℤ :
ℚ 𝑚 𝑚
 ℤ
= { 𝑛 + ℤ| 𝑛 ∈ ℚ} is an infinite order abelian group
1 ℚ ℚ ℚ
 𝑆 = {𝑝𝑛 + ℤ|𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝑛 ∈ ℕ} ⊆ ℤ
is the generating set of ℤ 𝑖. 𝑒. ℤ is an infinitely generated group
𝑚 ℚ 𝑚
 ∀ 𝑛
+ℤ ∈ ℤ
𝑜 (𝑛 + ℤ) is finite
ℚ 1
 ∀ 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, ℤ has an element of order 𝑛 namely 𝑛 + ℤ
ℚ 𝑚
 ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ, has exactly 𝜙(𝑛) elements order 𝑛 are of the form + ℤ ; 𝑚 ∈ ℕ, 𝑚 < 𝑛 & 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑚, 𝑛) =
ℤ 𝑛
1
ℚ
 ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ, ℤ has unique cyclic subgroup of order 𝑛
ℚ
 ℤ
has countable number of subgroups of finite order.
ℚ
 Every Finite ordered subgroup of ℤ is cyclic.
ℚ
 Every infinite ordered subgroup of ℤ is non-cyclic.
ℚ
 Every infinite ordered subgroup of ℤ is infinitely generated.
ℚ
 Every proper subgroup of ℤ is of infinite index.
𝑚 ℚ 𝑚 ℚ
 𝐻 = {2𝑛 + ℤ|𝑚 ∈ ℤ, 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2 … } ≠ ℤ
, 𝐻 = {2𝑛 + ℤ|𝑚 ∈ ℤ, 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2 … } ∆ ℤ
&
𝑜(𝐻) = 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒
ℚ
 𝐻 is infinitely generated non cyclic Subgroup of ℤ
 Every element of 𝐻 is finite order and ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 the order of 𝑎 is 2𝑘 form
 Every finite order subgroup of 𝐻 is cyclic
 Every proper subgroup of 𝐻 is of finite order but 𝐻 is of infinite order
 Every proper subgroup of 𝐻 is Cyclic but 𝐻 is non cyclic
6.6 Maximal Subgroup: If 𝐺 is a group 𝑠. 𝑡. 𝐻∆𝐺 then 𝐻 is called maximal subgroup if ∄ 𝐾 𝑠. 𝑡. 𝐾 is
a proper subgroup of 𝐺 and 𝐾∆𝐺 𝑠. 𝑡. 𝐻 is a proper subgroup of 𝐾.
Ex: 𝐴4 is a maximal subgroup of 𝑆4

7. List of Important Results – Homomorphism

7.1 Some important Definitions & Examples

7.1.1 Definition Homomorphism: Let 𝐺 and 𝐺′ be any two groups and let ∗ and  denote their
respective binary operations Then a function 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺′ is called a homomorphism, if 𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) =
𝑓(𝑎)  𝑓(𝑏)∀ 𝑎, b ∈ G.
Note: If we have a homomorphism of 𝐺 onto 𝐺 ′ and we then call 𝐺 ′ a homomorphic image of 𝐺.

𝐄𝐱: 𝐺 = (ℤ, +), 𝐺 ′ = multiplicative group of the fourth roots of unity 1

𝑓 ∶ 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑛) = 𝑖 𝑛

We need to check 𝑓(𝑚 + 𝑛) = 𝑓(𝑚). 𝑓(𝑛)

𝑓 (𝑚 + 𝑛) = 𝑖 𝑚+𝑛
= 𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛
= 𝑓(𝑚). 𝑓(𝑛)
Therefore, 𝑓 is a group homomorphism

Ex: Let 𝐺 = (ℂ, +) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐺 ′ = (ℝ, +)

define 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺′ is such that 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = 𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 ∈ ℂ, 𝑥 𝑦 ∈ ℝ
Consider, 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏) = 𝑎 ; 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑) = 𝑐 ; 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ ℝ.
𝑓[(𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏) + (𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑)] = 𝑓[(𝑎 + 𝑐) + 𝑖(𝑏 + 𝑑)] = 𝑎 + 𝑐
𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏) + 𝑓(𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑) = 𝑎 + 𝑐 = 𝑓((𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏) + (𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑))
⇒ 𝑓 is a homomorphism.

𝐄𝐱: 𝐺 = (ℤ, +), 𝐺 ′ = (ℤ2 ,×2 )

1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝑓 ∶ 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑥) = {
−1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
We need to check 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥). 𝑓(𝑦)

Case(𝑖) If 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℤ 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛

𝑓(𝑥) = 1, 𝑓(𝑦) = 1
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 1 [∵ 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟]
𝑓(𝑥). 𝑓(𝑦) = 𝐼. 𝐼 = 𝐼
⇒ 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥). 𝑓(𝑦)

Case(𝑖𝑖) for 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑑𝑑

𝑓(𝑥) = −1 𝑓(𝑦) = −1
𝑓(𝑥). 𝑓(𝑦) = 1
𝑥 + 𝑦 is an even integer ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 1
⇒ 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑓(𝑦)

Case(𝑖𝑖i)One even & one odd, say 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 & 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑

𝑓(𝑥) = 1, 𝑓(𝑦) = −1
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑦) = −1 [∵ 𝑥 + 𝑦 is an odd integer]
𝑓(𝑥). 𝑓(𝑦) = 1 . −1 = −1 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥). 𝑓(𝑦)
Hence, it forms a homomorphism.

7.1.2 Definition Kernel of Homomorphism: The kernel of a homomorphism 𝑓 from 𝐺 to a group 𝐺 ′ with
identity 𝑒 ′ is the set of all elements of 𝐺 which are mapped to identity 𝑒 ′ ∈ 𝐺 ′ . The kernel of 𝑓 is denoted
by ker 𝑓. i.e., 𝑓 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐺: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 ′ }

Note: 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ be a homomorphism then ker 𝑓 is normal subgroup of 𝐺.

Ex: Let 𝑅 ∗ be the group of nonzero real numbers under multiplication. Then the determinant mapping
𝐴 → 𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝐴 is a homomorphism from 𝐺𝐿(2, 𝑅) 𝑡𝑜 𝑅 ∗ The kernel of the determinant mapping is 𝑆𝐿(2, 𝑅).

Ex: The mapping from 𝑅 ∗ to 𝑅 ∗, defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = {𝑥}, is a homomorphism with 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝑓 = {1, −1}

Ex: Let 𝑅[𝑥] denote the group of all polynomials with real coefficients under addition. For any find 𝑅[𝑥],
let 𝑓′ denote the derivative of 𝑓. Then the mapping 𝑓 → 𝑓′ is a homomorphism from 𝑅[𝑥] to itself. The
kernel of the derivative mapping is the set of all constant polynomials.

Ex: The mapping from Z to 𝑍𝑛 , defined by 𝜙(𝑚) = 𝑚 mod 𝑛, is a homomorphism. The kernel of this
mapping is 〈𝑛〉.

Ex: The mapping 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 from 𝑅 ∗, the nonzero real numbers under multiplication, to itself is a
homomorphism, since
𝑓(𝑎𝑏) = (𝑎𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 𝑏 2 = 𝑓(𝑎)𝑓(𝑏) for all 𝑎 and 𝑏 in ℝ*.
The kernel is {1, −1}.

7.1.3 Definition Range set of homomorphism: Let 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ be a homomorphism the range set of 𝑓 is
set of all elements of 𝐺 ′ whose pre-image exists, i.e., 𝑅(𝑓) = {𝑓(𝑥) ∈ 𝐺 ′ |𝑥 ∈ 𝐺}

Note: 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ be a homomorphism then 𝑅(𝑓) is subgroup of 𝐺 ′ .

7.1.4 Definition Epimorphism: Let 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ is onto homomorphism then f is called Epimorphism

7.1.5 Definition Isomorphism: A homomorphism 𝑓 of a group 𝐺 onto a group 𝐺′ is called an isomorphism
if 𝑓 is a one-one, onto mapping.
Ex: Let 𝐺 = (ℝ+ , . ), 𝐺 ′ = (ℝ, +)
𝑓 ∶ 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺
Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺
𝑓(𝑥𝑦) = log(𝑥𝑦) = log 𝑥 + log 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑦)
⇒ 𝑓 is a homomorphism.
For one-one: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑦) ⇒ log 𝑥 = log 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑒 log 𝑥 = 𝑒 log 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦
⇒ 𝑓 is a homomorphism and one-one.
⇒ 𝑓 is a monomorphism.

For onto: Let 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑒 𝑥 ∈ ℝ+ .

∴ 𝑓(𝑒 𝑥 ) = log(𝑒 𝑥 ) = 𝑥
Hence, each 𝑥 ∈ ℝ has a pre image in ℝ+ .
⇒ 𝑓 is onto homomorphism.
As 𝑓 is 1 − 1, onto and homomorphism.
⇒ 𝑓 is a isomorphism.

Ex: The mapping from 𝑅 under addition to itself given by 𝜙(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 is not an isomorphism. Although 𝜙
is one-to-one and onto, it is not operation-preserving, since it is not true that (𝑥 + 𝑦)3 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 for all
x and y.

Ex: There is no isomorphism from 𝑄. the group of rational numbers under addition, to 𝑄 ∗ , the group of
nonzero rational numbers under multiplication. If 𝜙 were such a mapping, there would be a rational
number a such that 𝜙(𝑎) = −1. But then
1 1 1 1 1 2
−1 = 𝜙(𝑎) = 𝜙 (2 𝑎 + 2 𝑎) = 𝜙 (2 𝑎) 𝜙 (2 𝑎) = [𝜙 (2 𝑎)]
However, no rational number squared is −1.

7.1.6 Definition Isomorphic Groups: Two Groups (𝐺,∗) and (𝐺 ′ , #) are called isomorphic if there exists
Isomorphism from (𝐺,∗) onto (𝐺 ′ , #)

7.2 Properties of Isomorphism & Automorphism

7.2.1 Properties of Isomorphism Acting on Elements

Suppose that 𝑓 is an isomorphism from a group G onto a group 𝐺’ Then
 𝑓 carries the identity of G to the identity of 𝐺’.
 For every integer 𝑛 and for every group element 𝑎 in 𝐺, 𝑓(𝑎𝑛 ) = [𝑓(𝑎)]𝑛
 For any elements 𝑎 and 𝑏 in 𝐺, 𝑎 and 𝑏 commute if and only if 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏) commute.
 𝐺 = 〈𝑎〉 if and only if 𝐺’ = 〈𝑓(𝑎)〉.
 |𝑎| = 𝑓(𝑎) for all 𝑎 in 𝐺 (isomorphisms preserve orders).
 For a fixed integer 𝑘 and a fixed group element 𝑏 in 𝐺, the equation 𝑥 𝑘 = 𝑏 has the same number of
solutions in 𝐺 as does the equation 𝑥 𝑘 = 𝑓(𝑏) in 𝐺’.
 If G is finite, then 𝐺 and 𝐺’ have exactly the same number of elements of every order.

7.2.2 Properties of Isomorphism Acting on Group

Suppose that 𝑓 is an isomorphism from a group G onto a group 𝐺’. Then
 𝑓 −1 is an isomorphism from 𝐺’ onto G.
 𝐺 is Abelian if and only if 𝐺’ is Abelian.
 𝐺 is cyclic if and only if 𝐺’ is cyclic.
 If 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺, then 𝑓(𝐻) = {𝑓(ℎ) | ℎ ∈ 𝐻} is a subgroup of 𝐺’.
 If 𝐾 is a subgroup of 𝐺’, then 𝑓 −1 (𝐾) = {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 | 𝑓(𝑔) ∈ 𝐾} is a subgroup of 𝐺.
 𝑓(𝑍(𝐺)) = 𝑍(𝐺’)

7.2.3 Definition Endomorphism: A homomorphism from 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺 is called Endomorphism

Ex: Let 𝐺 = (ℝ, +)
Consider 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺 defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥, then 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑦) = (𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑦), ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ
Here, 𝑓 is homomorphism from G onto itself.
∴ 𝑓 is endomorphism.

7.2.4 Definition Automorphism: An Isomorphism from (𝐺,∗) onto (𝐺,∗) itself is called automorphism

 Automorphism of 𝐺 is denoted by 𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺)={𝑓 | 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑢𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚 𝑜𝑛 𝐺}

Then 𝐴𝑢𝑡 (𝐺) is group w.r.t composition of function.

Ex: Let 𝑓: (𝑄, +) → (𝑄, +) defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥

→ (𝑖)Show that 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 1 − 1
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑦)
2𝑥 = 2𝑦
𝑥=𝑦
⇒ 𝑓 is 1-1
(𝑖𝑖)Show that 𝐟 is onto
𝑦
∀ 𝑦 𝜖 𝑄 ∃ 𝑥 = 2 s.t
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦
⇒ 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜.

(𝑖𝑖𝑖)Show that 𝐟 is homomorphiym

𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 2(𝑥 + 𝑦)
= 2𝑥 + 2𝑦
= 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑦)

2𝑥
Ex: Let 𝐺 = (𝑄, +) and 𝑓 ∶ 𝐺 → 𝐺 is defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
For one-one and well defined:
𝑥1 = 𝑥2 ; 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ ℚ
2𝑥1 2𝑥2
⇔ 2𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 ⇔ 3
= 3
⇔ 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 )
It shows map f is well defined as well as one-one.
Homomorphism:
2 2 2
𝑓(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) = 3 (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) = 3 𝑥1 + 3 𝑥2 = 𝑓(𝑥1 ) + 𝑓(𝑥2 ) .
⇒ 𝑓 is a homomorphism.
For onto:
let 𝑦 ∈ ℚ
2 3 3 3 2
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑥=𝑦⇒𝑥= 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑓 ( 𝑦) = . 𝑦 = 𝑦.
3 2 2 2 3
Hence, for each 𝑦 ∈ ℚ ∃ 𝑥 ∈ ℚ such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑓 is onto.
Since, f is homomorphism, one-one, onto.
∴ 𝑓 is an automorphism.

7.2.5 Properties of automorphism

 Let 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺 sit. 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑎−1
then f is 1-1 and onto but f is automorphism if G is abelian
→ as 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑥, 𝑦)−1
= 𝑦 −1 𝑥 −1
= 𝑥 −1 𝑦 −1 (∴ 𝐺 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑛)
= 𝑓(𝑥)𝑓(𝑦)

 If 𝑓 is automorphism then 𝑜(𝑎) = 𝑜(𝑓(𝑎)) as 𝑓 is I-I

 𝐴𝑢𝑡 (𝑍𝑛 ) ≅ 𝑈(𝑛)
 𝐴𝑢𝑡 (𝑍) ≅ 𝑍2
 If 𝐴𝑢𝑡 (𝐺1 ) ≅ 𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺2 ) then it is not necessary, that 𝐺1 ≅ 𝐺2
Ex: 𝐴𝑢𝑡 (𝑍8 ) ≅ 𝐴𝑢𝑡 (𝑍12 ) but 𝑍8 ≇ 𝑍12

 It is possible that two groups have same group of automorphism, but groups are not isomorphic.
𝐄𝐱: 𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝑍4 ) ≅ 𝑈(4) ≅ 𝑍2
𝐴𝑢𝑡 (𝑍) ≅ 𝑍2
⇒ 𝐴𝑢𝑡 (𝑍4 ) ≅ 𝐴𝑢𝑡 (𝑍)
𝑍4 is finit and 𝑍 is infinite group their automorphism are same.
 𝐴𝑢𝑡 (𝐾4 ) ≅ 𝑆3
 A𝑢𝑡 (𝑆𝑛 ) ≅ 𝑆𝑛 , 𝑛 ≠ 6 & 𝐴𝑢𝑡 (𝑆6 ) ≅ 𝑍2 × 𝑍6
 𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝑍𝑝 × 𝑍𝑝 × … × 𝑍𝑝 ) ≅ 𝐺𝐿(𝑛, 𝑍𝑝 )
 It G is abelian then it is not necessary that 𝐴𝑢𝑡 (𝐺)𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 abelion.
 If G is cyclic them 𝐴𝑢𝑡 (𝐺) 𝑖𝑠 abelian.
 If 𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺)is non-abeline then G is non-cyclic
 𝐴𝑢𝑡 (𝑄, +) ≅ (𝑄 ∗ , . )

Ex: Which of the following f is true?

a) 𝐴𝑢𝑡 (𝑍8 ) ≅ 𝐴𝑢𝑡 (𝑍12 )
b)𝐴𝑢𝑡 (𝑍5 ) ≅ 𝐴𝑢𝑡 (𝑍10 )
c) 𝐴𝑢𝑡 (𝑍2 ) ≅ 𝐴𝑢𝑡 (𝑍4 )
d) None of the above.
→ Since, 𝐴𝑢𝑡 (𝑍𝑛 ) ≅ 𝑈(𝑛)
𝐴𝑢𝑡 (𝑧8 ) ≅ 𝑈(8) & 𝐴𝑢𝑡 (𝑍12 ) ≅ 𝑈(12)
(a) is true if 𝑈(8) ≅ 𝑈(12)
𝑈(5) = {1,2,3,4}, 𝑜(2) = 4 ⇒ 𝑈(5)𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝.
But 𝑈(10) = {1,3,7,9}, 𝑂(3) = 4 ⇒ 𝑈(10)𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝.
⇒ 𝑈(5) ≅ 𝑈(10) ≅ 𝑍4
Similarly, you can check for other options

7.2.6 Definition Counting of Automorphism

Counting of group Auto morphisms
Sr. No. Examples Number of Group Auto morphisms
1 Number of Auto morphisms from ℤ𝑚 𝜙(𝑚), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜙 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 ′ 𝑠 𝑝ℎ𝑖 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2 Number of Auto morphisms from ℤ 2
3 Number of Auto morphisms from 𝑛!
𝑆𝑛 , 𝑛 ≥ 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 ≠ 6
4 Number of Auto morphisms from 𝑆6 2 × 6!
5 Number of Auto morphisms from 𝐷𝑛 𝑛𝜙(𝑛)
6 Number of inner Auto morphisms 𝑛!
from 𝑆𝑛 𝑛 > 2

7.2.7 Definition Inner-Automorphism: - Let (𝐺,∗) be a group then a 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺 such that 𝑓𝛼 (𝑥) =
𝑎𝑥𝑎−1 , ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 is an automorphism is called inner automorphism
7.3 Properties of Homomorphism

7.3.1 Properties of Elements Under homeomorphisms

Let 𝑓 be a homomorphism from a group G to a group 𝐺′ and let g be an element of G. Then
 𝑓 carries the identity of G to the identity of 𝐺′.
𝑛
 𝑓(𝑔𝑛 ) = (𝑓(𝑔)) for all n in 𝑍.
 If |𝑔| is finite, then |𝑓(𝑔)| divides |𝑔|.
 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝑓 is a subgroup of 𝐺.
 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) if and only if 𝑎𝐾𝑒𝑟𝑓 = 𝑏𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝑓.
 If 𝑓(𝑔) = 𝑔′ then 𝑓 −1 (𝑔′ ) = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 | 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔′ } = 𝑔𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝑓

Since homomorphism preserve the group operation, it should not be a surprise that they preserve many
group properties.

7.3.2 Properties of Subgroups Under Homomorphisms

Let 𝑓 be a homomorphism from a group G to a group 𝐺′ and let 𝐻 be a subgroup of 𝐺. Then
 𝑓(𝐻) = {𝑓(ℎ) | ℎ ∈ 𝐻} is a subgroup of 𝐺′
 If 𝐻 is cyclic, then 𝑓(𝐻) is cyclic.
 If 𝐻 is Abelian, then 𝑓(𝐻) is Abelian.
 If 𝐻 is normal in 𝐺, then 𝑓(𝐻) is normal in 𝑓(𝐺).
 If |ker 𝑓| = 𝑛 , then 𝑓 is an n-to-1 mapping from G onto 𝑓(𝐺).
 If |𝐻| = 𝑛, then |𝑓(𝐻)| divides 𝑛.
 If 𝐾 is a subgroup of 𝐺′, then 𝑓 −1 (𝐾) = {𝑘 ∈ 𝐺 | 𝑓(𝑘) ∈ 𝐾} is a subgroup of 𝐺.
 If 𝐾 is a normal subgroup of 𝐺 ′ , then 𝑓 −1 (𝐾) = {𝑘 ∈ 𝐺| 𝑓(𝑘) ∈ 𝐾}
 is a normal subgroup of 𝐺.
 If 𝑓 is onto and 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝑓 = {𝑒}, then 𝑓 is an isomorphism from 𝐺 to 𝐺′.

Note:

 There never exist any onto homomorphism from an abelian group onto a non-abelian group
 There never exist any onto homomorphism from a cyclic group onto non-cyclic group

7.4 Some important Theorems

 Every finite cyclic group 𝐺 = 〈𝑎〉 of order 𝑛 is isomorphic to (ℤ𝑛 , +𝑛 )
Hint: Define 𝑓: ℤ𝑛 → 𝐺 such that 𝑘 → 𝑎𝑘 then 𝑓 is one-one homomorphism from ℤ𝑛 onto 𝐺

 Every infinite cyclic group 𝐺 = 〈𝑎〉 is isomorphic to (ℤ, +)

Hint: Define 𝑓: 𝑍 → 𝐺 such that 𝑓(𝑛) = 𝑎𝑛 . Then 𝑓 is one-one homomorphism from ℤ onto 𝐺
 Let ℤ be group of integers and 〈𝑛〉 is subgroup of ℤ.
ℤ
 Then quotient group 〈𝑛〉 ≅ ℤ𝑛 , where 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.

 Let 𝐺 and 𝐺 ′ are two cyclic group of same order then they are isomorphic, and isomorphism is which
map generator of 𝐺 onto generator of 𝐺 ′
 A group 𝐺 abelian iff 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 −1 is an automorphism

 Every odd order abelian group has non-trivial automorphism, namely 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 −1 ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐺

 𝐺 is finite cyclic group of order 𝑛. then 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺 defined as 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑚 , 𝑓, 𝑔: 𝐺 → 𝐺 defined as 𝑓(𝑎) =

𝑎 and 𝑔(𝑎) = 𝑎, 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑚, 𝑛) = 1, 1 ≤ 𝑚 < 𝑛 is an automorphism and 𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺) ≅ 𝑈(𝑛).

 If 𝐺 = 〈𝑎〉 be an infinite cyclic group. Then there are the only two automorphisms and 𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺) ≅ 𝑍2

 (Cayley's Theorem): Every finite group of order 𝑛 is isomorphic to a subgroup of a permutation group
on 𝑛 Symbols

 If 𝐻 is an normal subgroup of 𝐺 of order m and order of 𝐺 is 𝑛, then the quotient group 𝐺/𝐻 is of
order 𝑛/𝑚

 If 𝐻 is an normal subgroup of a group 𝐺, the mapping 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺/𝐻 defined as 𝑓(𝑔) = 𝐻𝑔 is a

homomorphism of 𝐺 onto 𝐺/𝐻

 If 𝐻 is an normal subgroup of a group 𝐺 and if 𝐻 is also a subgroup of a subgroup 𝐾 , then 𝐻 is an

normal subgroup of 𝐾.

7.4.1 Fundamental theorem of homomorphism

 First Theorem on Isomorphism: "Every homomorphic image of a group is isomorphic to the quotient
group induced by kernel of homomorphism i.e., If 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ is homomorphism, then
𝐺 𝑜(𝐺)
ker 𝑓
≅ 𝑓(𝐺) ⇒ 𝑜(ker 𝑓) = 𝑜(𝑓(𝐺))

 Remark: Every normal subgroup of a group 𝐺 is the kernel of a homomorphism of 𝐺. In particular,

𝐺
normal subgroup 𝑁 is the kernel of the mapping 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝑁 defined by 𝑓(𝑔) = 𝑁𝑔 or 𝑔𝑁
𝐺
 Corollary: Let 𝑓 is a homomorphism from 𝐺 to 𝐺’ then it induces an isomorphism from 𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑓 onto
𝑓(𝐺) and conversely
𝐺
 Corollary: It ≅ (𝐺′) then number of homomophism from 𝐺 onto 𝐺’ with
𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑡
𝐺
Kernel 𝑓 is 𝑜(𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺′)) = 𝑜 (𝐴𝑢𝑡 (ker 𝑓))
 Second Isomorphism Theorem: If 𝐻 is normal subgroup of 𝐺 and 𝐾 is another subgroup of 𝐺. Then
𝐾 𝐻𝐾
𝐻∩𝐾
≅ 𝐻

𝐺
 Third Isomorphism Theorem: Let 𝐻 and 𝐾 be normal subgroups of a group 𝐺, with 𝐾 ≤ 𝐻. Then 𝐻 ≅
𝐺
( )
𝐾
𝐻
( )
𝐾

7.4.2 Important Propositions of Homomorphism/Isomorphism

 Let 𝐺 be a group and 𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺) be set of all automorphism is subgroup of 𝑆𝐺 (group of permutation on
𝐺) under composition of functions

 Inn (𝐺) (set of all Inner automorphism) is normal subgroup of 𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐺)

 Let 𝑎 ∈ (𝑍(𝐺)) be arbitrary. Then corresponding to '𝑎', there is only one inner Automorphism which
is identity map

 Index of center 𝑍(𝐺) = 𝑜(𝐼𝑛𝑛(𝐺))

 Let 𝐺 be a finite Group and 𝑍(𝐺) be centre of 𝐺.

𝐺
Then ≅ 𝐼𝑛𝑛(𝐺)
𝑍(𝐺)

8. List of Important Results - Sylow Theorems, Their

Applications
8.1 Definition 𝒑-Group: If 𝐺 be a group then 𝐺 is called a 𝑝-group if order of every 𝑒 ≠ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 is 𝑝𝑟 for
some 𝑟 ∈ ℕ and 𝑝 − 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒.
𝑖. 𝑒.
If each element of 𝐺 is of order of a power of some fixed prime number 𝑝, then 𝐺 is called a 𝑝 − 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝

 (𝑍𝑝 , +𝑝 ) is a finite cyclic 𝑝 − 𝑔roup

 (𝑍𝑝 × 𝑍𝑝 , ) is a finite non-cyclic abelian 𝑝 − 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
1 𝑎 𝑏
 (𝐻 = {[0 1 𝑐 ] |𝑎, 𝑏 & 𝑐 ∈ 𝑍𝑝 } ,∙ ) is a finite non-abelian 𝑝 − 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
0 0 1 𝑛×𝑛
 ∄ any infinite cyclic 𝑝 − 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
 ((𝑍𝑝 × 𝑍𝑝 × ∙∙∙), ) is an infinite non-cyclic abelian 𝑝 − 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
 ((𝐻 × 𝐻 ×∙∙) ∙, ) is an infinite non-abelian 𝑝 − 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
  A finite group 𝐺 is a 𝑝-group if and only if 𝑜(𝐺) = 𝑝𝑛

8.1.1 Definition 𝒑-Subgroup: If 𝑝 be a prime number, then a subgroup 𝐻 of a group 𝐺 is called a 𝑝 −

𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 if the order of every 𝑒 ≠ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 is 𝑝𝑟 for some 𝑟 ∈ ℕ
In particular if each element of 𝐺 is of order of a power of some fixed prime number 𝑝, then 𝐻 is
called a 𝑝 − 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝

 Every subgroup of a 𝑝-group is 𝑝-subgroup

 A non-𝑝-group can have 𝑝-subgroup
 Every Composite ordered group has 𝑝-subgroup for distinct prime 𝑝 Such that 𝑝|𝑂(𝐺)

8.1.2 Definition 𝒑-sylow subgroup (𝒑 − 𝑺𝑺𝑮): Let 𝐺 be finite group and 𝑝 is a prime no. then if 𝐻 < 𝐺
and 𝑂(𝐻) = 𝑝𝑚 & 𝑝𝑚+1 ∤ 𝑂(𝐺) then 𝐻 is a 𝑝 − 𝑆𝑆𝐺.

8.2 Cauchy's Theorem for Finite Groups: Let 𝐺 be a finite group and 𝑝|𝑂(𝐺), then 𝐺 contains
an element of order p.

8.3 Index Theorem: Let 𝐺 be a group and 𝐻 is proper subgroup of 𝐺 such that index of 𝐻 is 𝑛 then if
𝑂(𝐺) ∤ 𝑛! then 𝐺 is not simple.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐺 must contain a proper normal subgroup.
Ex: Let 𝑜(𝐺) = 24 and 𝐻 be subgroup of 𝐺 such that 𝑜(𝐻) = 8. Then 𝑖𝐺 (𝐻) = 3. Since, 𝑜(𝐺) = 24 ∤ 3! ⇒
𝐺 must has a proper normal subgroup ⇒ 𝐺 is not a simple group

8.4 Definition Embedded Group: Let 𝐺 and 𝐺 ′ be two groups then 𝐺 is said to be embedded in 𝐺 ′
if there exist a subgroup 𝐻 of 𝐺 ′ such that 𝐺 is isomorphic to 𝐻.
Ex: 𝑆3 is embedded in 𝐷4

8.4.1 Embedding Theorem: Let 𝐺 be a finite simple group having a proper subgroup of index 𝑛 then
𝐺 is isomorphic to a subgroup of 𝐴𝑛
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝐺 is embedded in 𝐴𝑛

 If a finite group 𝐺 has a proper subgroup 𝐻 of index less than ≤ 4. Then 𝐺 cannot be simple. i.e., the
smallest index of any proper subgroup in a simple group is 5.

8.5 Sylow Theorems:

 Sylow 1st theorem: If 𝐺 be a finite group & 𝑝𝑘 /𝑜(𝐺) then ∃ 𝐻 < 𝐺 s.t. 𝑜(𝐻) = 𝑝𝑘 𝑝 −prime, 𝑘 ∈
ℕ (In this case Converse of languages 𝑡ℎ𝑚 true)

 Sylow 2nd theorem: If 𝐺 be a finite group & 𝐻 < 𝐺 𝑠. 𝑡. H is 𝑝 − 𝑆𝑆𝐺 then all the other
𝑝 − 𝑠𝑠𝑔 are 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 to 𝐻 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐾 = 〈𝑥 𝐻𝑥 −1 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺〉 is the collection of all the 𝑝 − 𝑠𝑠𝑔 of 𝐺.

 Sylow 3rd theorem: if 𝐺 be a finite group then passible no. of 𝑝 − 𝑆𝑆𝐺 in 𝐺 is 1 + 𝑝𝑘 &
1 + 𝑝𝑘 | 𝑜(𝐺), 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, ….
List of some Important Results:
 If 𝐺 be a finite group & 𝐻 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝 − 𝑆𝑆𝐺in 𝐺 then 𝐻 ∆ 𝐺 iff 𝐻 is unique.
 Every 𝑝-subgroup of a finite group 𝐺 is contained in some 𝑝 − 𝑆𝑆𝐺
 If 𝑜(𝐺) = 𝑝𝑞, where 𝑝 < 𝑞 are distinct primes, then If 𝑝 ∤ 𝑞 − 1 then 𝐺 𝐺 ≅ ℤ𝑝.𝑞 and if 𝑝/(𝑞 − 1)
then 𝐺 is a non – abelian group of order 𝑝𝑞
Ex: If 𝑜(𝐺) = 15 or 65 then 𝐺 ≅ ℤ15 𝑜𝑟 ≅ ℤ65 and if 𝑜(𝐺) = 21 then either 𝐺 ≅ ℤ65 𝑜𝑟 𝐺 is a non-
abelian group of order 𝑝𝑞
 If 𝑜(𝐺) = 𝑝𝑞 and abelian group also 𝑝 < 𝑞 are distinct primes is always cyclic.
 There does not exist any group of order 𝑝. 𝑞 where 𝑝 < 𝑞 are distinct primes which non cyclic abelian
 If 𝑜(𝐺) = 2𝑝, where 𝑝 is odd prime then either 𝐺 ≅ ℤ𝑝.𝑞 𝑜𝑟 𝐺 ≅ 𝐷𝑝
 Every abelian group of order 2. 𝑝 is cyclic
 If 𝐺 be a finite 𝑝-group, then every proper subgroup is a proper subgroup of its normalizer in 𝐺(𝑖. 𝑒.,
if 𝑜(𝐺) = 𝑝𝑛 , 𝐻 ≤ 𝐺, 𝐻 ≠ 𝐺, then ∃𝑔 ∈ 𝐺, s.t. 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1 = 𝐻)
 If 𝐺 be a finite abelian group then converse of Lagrange theorem is true 𝑖. 𝑒. If 𝑜(𝐺) = 𝑛. Then for
every divisor 𝑚 of 𝑛, 𝐺 has a subgroup of order 𝑚
 Let 𝑜(𝐺) = 𝑝𝑛 (p=prime). If 𝐻 ≤ 𝐺 𝑠. 𝑡. 𝑜(𝐻) = 𝑝𝑛−1 , show that 𝐻 is normal in 𝐺.
 If 𝐺 a finite group of order 𝑛 = 𝑝𝑘 𝑞(𝑘 ≥ 1), where 𝑝 is a prime and 𝑞 be a positive integer (𝑝, 𝑞
relatively prime) then for each 𝑖, 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑘. 𝐺 has a subgroup of order 𝑝𝑖
𝑜(𝐺)
 Let 𝐻 be a Sylow 𝑝-subgroups of 𝐺 then the number of 𝑝 − 𝑆𝑆𝐺 of 𝐺 is equal to 𝑜(𝑁(𝐻))
 If 𝐺 is a finite group and 𝑝 is the smallest prime divisor of 𝑜(𝐺), then a subgroup 𝐻 of index 𝑝 in 𝐺 is
normal in 𝐺
 If 𝐺 be a group of order 𝑝𝑞𝑟, 𝑝 < 𝑞 < 𝑟 being primes then
 𝐺 is not simple
 𝑟 − 𝑆𝑆𝐺 is normal in 𝐺
 𝐺 has a normal subgroup of order 𝑞𝑟
 If 𝑞 ∤ 𝑟 − 1 then Sylow 𝑞-subgroup is normal in 𝐺
 Every finite Abelian group can be expressed as the direct product of its 𝑝 − 𝑆𝑆𝐺′𝑠. Moreover, the
factorization is unique except for rearrangement of the factors.
 Every group of order 45 is abelian

8.6 Internal Direct Product:

A group 𝐺 is the internal direct product of its subgroups 𝐻 and 𝐾 if and only if 𝐻 and 𝐾 both are normal
subgroup of 𝐺 and 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 =  along with 𝐻𝐾 = 𝐺
(ii) Every element of G can be expressed uniquely in the form ℎ𝑘, where h∈H and 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾.

Note: If a group G is the internal direct product of its subgroups H and K, then 𝐺 ≅ 𝐻 × 𝐾.

8.7 Fundamental theorem of finite abelian groups:

Every finite abelian group is a direct product of cyclic groups of prime-power order. Moreover, the
factorization is unique except for rearrangement of the factors.

8.8 Number of non-isomorphic abelian groups:

 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
Let 𝑛 = 𝑝1 1 . 𝑝2 2 … . 𝑝𝑛 1 . where 𝑝𝑖′ 𝑠 are distinct primes. Then, the number of non-isomorphic abelian
groups of order 𝑛 = 𝑝(𝑛1 ). 𝑝(𝑛2 ) … 𝑝(𝑛𝑖 ), where 𝑝(𝑛) denotes the number of partitions of n

Ex: Possible direct products for 𝐺, when 𝑂(𝐺) = 𝑝𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1,2,3,4 is

Order of G Partitions of O(G) Possible direct products for G.

𝑝 1 ℤ𝑝
𝑝2 2 ℤ𝑝2
1+1 ℤ𝑝 × ℤ𝑝
𝑝3 3 ℤ𝑝3
2+1 ℤ𝑝2 × ℤ𝑝
1+1+1 ℤ𝑝 × ℤ𝑝 × ℤ𝑝
4 4 ℤ𝑝2 × ℤ𝑝
𝑝
3+1 ℤ𝑝 2 × ℤ𝑝 2
2+2 ℤ𝑝2 × ℤ𝑝 × ℤ𝑝
2+1+1 ℤ𝑝 × ℤ𝑝 × ℤ𝑝 × ℤ𝑝
1+1+1+1

Ex: If 𝑂(𝐺) = 1176, then find the possible direct products for G.
Solution: 𝑂(𝐺) = 1176 = 23 × 3 × 72 , then the possible direct products for G are as follows:
ℤ8 × ℤ3 × ℤ49
ℤ4 × ℤ2 × ℤ3 × ℤ49
ℤ2 × ℤ2 × ℤ2 × ℤ3 × ℤ49
ℤ8 × ℤ3 × ℤ7 × ℤ7
ℤ4 × ℤ2 × ℤ3 × ℤ7 × ℤ7
ℤ2 × ℤ2 × ℤ2 × ℤ3 × ℤ7 × ℤ7