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ELEVENTH EDITION

Mary Molt, Ph.D., R.D.

Assistant Director, Housing and Dining Services

Assistant Professor of Hotel,

Restaurant and Institution Management,
and Dietetics

Kansas State University

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Molt, Mary.
Food for fifty / Mary Molt. -- 11th ed.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-13-020535-4
1. Quantity cookery. 2. Menus. I. Title

TX820.M57 2001
641.5'7 -- dc21 00-034022

Publisher: Dave Garza

Associate Editor: Marion Gottlieb
Production Editor: Lori Dalberg, Carlisle Publishers Services
Production Liaison: Barbara Marttine Cappuccio
Director of Manufacturing and Production: Bruce Johnson
Managing Editor: Mary Carnis
Manufacturing Buyer: Ed O’Dougherty
Art Director: Marianne Frasco
Cover Design Coordinator: Miguel Ortiz
Cover Designer: Ruta Fiorino
Cover Art: ©Susie M. Eising Food Photography/Stock Food
Marketing Manager: Ryan DeGrote
Editorial Assistant: Susan Kegler
Interior Design and Composition: Carlisle Communications, Ltd.
Printing and Binding: Courier Westford

Prentice-Hall International (UK) Limited, London

Prentice-Hall of Australia Pty. Limited, Sydney
Prentice-Hall of Canada, Inc., Toronto
Prentice-Hall Hispanoamericana, S. A., Mexico
Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi
Prentice-Hall of Japan, Inc., Toyko
Prentice-Hall Singapore Pte. Ltd.
Editora Prentice-Hall do Brasil, Ltda., Rio de Janeiro

Copyright © 2001, 1997 by Prentice-Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458. Earlier editions, © 1937, 1941,
1950 by Sina Faye Fowler and Bessie Brooks West; 1961, 1971, 1979 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; 1985, 1989, 1993 by
Macmillan Publishing Company. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by
Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval
system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. For
information regarding permission(s), write to: Rights and Permissions Department.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ISBN 0-13-020535-4
To the many talented Kansas State University Housing and Dining Services dietitians
and food service professionals that I have had the privilege to learn from.
PART ONE CHAPTER THREE
Beverages 87
Food Production
Coffee 87
Information 1 Tea 88
Punch 88
CHAPTER ONE Wine 89
Beverage Recipes 89
Food Production Information 3
How to Use Tables and Guides 3
Recipe Development and Construction 5 CHAPTER FOUR
Recipe Adjustment 5 Breads 105
Converting from U.S. Measurement to Metric 5 Quick Breads 105
Converting from Weight to Measure 6 Methods of Mixing 105
Increasing and Decreasing Recipe Yields 6 Yeast Breads 106
Enlarging Home-Size Recipes 8
Ingredients 106
Reducing Fat, Sodium, and Sugar 9 Mixing the Dough 107
Fermentation of Dough 108
Shaping, Proofing, and Baking 108
Freezing Yeast Doughs and Breads 108
PART TWO Quick Bread Recipes 110
Recipes 69 Yeast Bread Recipes 136

Recipe Information 70 CHAPTER FIVE

Yield 70
Ingredients 70 Desserts 155
Weights and Measures 71 Cakes and Icings 155
Cooking Time and Temperature 71 Methods of Mixing Butter
Critical Control Points 71 or Shortened Cakes 155
Abbreviations Used in Recipes 71 Methods of Mixing Foam or Sponge Cakes 156
Basic Recipes 71 Cake Mixes 156
Scaling Batter 156
CHAPTER TWO Baking 158
Icings and Fillings 158
Appetizers, Hors d’oeuvres,
Cookies 161
and Special Event Foods 73 Proportion of Ingredients 161
Appetizer Recipes 77 Methods of Mixing 161

v
vi Contents

Shaping 161 Veal Recipes 346

Baking 161 Pork Recipes 348
Storing 161
Pies 163
CHAPTER NINE
Ingredients 163
Mixing 163 Pasta, Rice, Cereals, and Foods
Other Desserts 164 with Grains, Beans, and Tofu 361
Cake Recipes 165
Pasta 361
Icing Recipes 189
Rice 361
Filling Recipes 196
Cereals 367
Drop Cookie Recipes 201
Other Grains 367
Bar Cookie Recipes 212
Beans 368
Press, Molded, and Rolled Cookie Recipes 218
Tofu 368
Pie Recipes 223
Pasta Recipes 369
Other Dessert Recipes 247
Rice Recipes 399
Cereal and Grain Recipes 413
CHAPTER SIX Bean and Tofu Recipes 422

Eggs and Cheese 267

Eggs 267 CHAPTER TEN
Market Forms 267 Poultry 433
Egg Cookery 268 Purchasing and Storage 433
Cheese and Milk 268 Handling Poultry Safely 433
Cheese Cookery 268 Cooking Methods 433
Milk Cookery 268 Broiling or Grilling 435
Egg and Cheese Recipes 271 Deep-Fat Frying 436
Pan Frying 436
Oven Frying 436
CHAPTER SEVEN Braising 436
Fish and Shellfish 287 En Papillote 436
Stewing or Simmering and Poaching 438
Fin Fish 287 Roasting 438
Market Forms 287 Poultry Recipes 440
Storage 288
Cooking Methods 289
Shellfish 291 CHAPTER ELEVEN
Fish and Shellfish Recipes 293 Salads and Salad Dressings 463
Salads 463
CHAPTER EIGHT Arranged Salads 463
Salad Bars 463
Meat 311 Salad Ingredients and Their Preparation
Purchasing and Storage 311 and Storage 464
Cooking Methods 312 Salad Greens 465
Roasting 313 Herbs 466
Broiling 317 Vegetables for Salads and Crudités 467
Direct Grilling 317 Fresh Fruits 468
Frying 317 Canned Fruit 469
Braising 321 Other Foods 469
Cooking in Liquid 322 Salad Dressings 470
Stewing 323 Vegetable and Pasta Salad Recipes 473
Degree of Doneness 323 Gelatin Salad Recipes 490
Beef Recipes 324 Fruit Salad Recipes 493
 Contents vii

Entree Salad Recipes 498 Directions for Stir-Frying 630

Relish Recipes 512 Canned Vegetables 630
Salad Dressing Recipes 517
Directions for Heating 630
Dried Vegetables 632
CHAPTER TWELVE Directions for Cooking 632
Sandwiches 531 Vegetable Recipes 633
Preparation of Ingredients 531
Breads 531
Spreads 531 PART THREE
Fillings 531
Vegetable Accompaniments 531 Planning the Menu
Preparation of Sandwiches 532
Closed Sandwiches 532
and Special Events 685
Grilled and Toasted Sandwiches 532
Open-Faced Hot Sandwiches 532 CHAPTER SIXTEEN
Canapés 532 Menu Planning 687
Ribbon Sandwiches 532
Checkerboard Sandwiches 532 Types of Menus 687
Rolled Sandwiches 533 Factors Affecting Menu Planning 688
Freezing Sandwiches 533 Clientele 688
Sandwich Recipes 534 Type of Foodservice 689
Financial Limitations 690
Food Availability 690
CHAPTER THIRTEEN Production Capabilities 690
Sauces, Marinades, Rubs, Menu Planning Procedures 690
Key Points in Menu Planning 690
and Seasonings 559 Steps in Menu Planning 691
Entree and Vegetable Sauces 559 Menu Planning for Different Types
Dessert Sauces 560 of Foodservice 692
Marinades, Rubs, and Seasonings 560
Elementary and Secondary Schools 692
Entree and Vegetable Sauce Recipes 560
Colleges and Universities 695
Dessert Sauce Recipes 583
Commercial Foodservices 695
Marinade, Rub, and Seasoning Recipes 589
Hospitals 698
Extended Care Facilities and Retirement
CHAPTER FOURTEEN Communities 701

Soups 597
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
Types of Soups 597
Commercial Soup Bases 597 Planning Special Meals
Serving and Holding Soups 598 and Receptions 703
Stock Soup Recipes 598
Planning Responsibilities 703
Cream Soup Recipes 616
Receptions and Teas 704
Chowder Recipes 620
Coffees and Brunches 705
Chilled Soup Recipes 626
Buffet Dinners and Luncheons 706
Menu Planning 706
CHAPTER FIFTEEN Table and Space Arrangement 706
Food Presentation and Service 709
Vegetables 629 Banquet Service 710
Fresh and Frozen Vegetables 629 Preparation of the Dining Room 710
Directions for Boiling 630 Setting the Tables 710
Directions for Steaming 630 Seating Arrangement 711
viii Contents

Service Counter Setup for Served Meals 711 APPENDIX C

Table Service 711
Potentially Hazardous Foods 733
Styles of Service 713
Wine and Bar Service 713
Wine and Food Pairings 713 APPENDIX D
Bar Service 716
Evaluating Food for Quality 735
APPENDIX A
APPENDIX E
Suggested Menu Items 717
Food Customs of Different Religions 737
APPENDIX B
Glossary of Menu and
Use of Herbs and Spices Cooking Terms 739
in Cooking 725
Index 749
General Information Table 1.22 Counter Pan Capacities 49
Table 1.1 Amounts of Food to Serve 50 10 Table 1.23 Common Can Sizes 49
Table 1.2 Approximate Yield in the Preparation Table 1.24 Ingredient Substitutions 50
of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables 21 Table 1.25 Ingredient Proportions 52
Table 1.3 Food Weights and Approximate Table 1.26 Guide for Rounding Off Weights
Equivalents in Measure 22 and Measures 53
Table 1.4 Basic Equivalents in Measures and Table 1.27 Ounces and Decimal Equivalents
Weights 31 of a Pound 54
Table 1.5 Weight and Approximate Measure Table 1.28 Direct-Reading Table for Adjusting
Equivalents for Commonly Weight Ingredients of Recipes
Used Foods 32 Divisible by 25 56
Table 1.6 Metric Equivalents for Weight, Table 1.29 Direct-Reading Table for Adjusting
Measure, and Temperature 36 Recipes with Ingredient Amounts
Table 1.7 Convection Oven Baking Times Given in Volume Measurement and
and Temperatures 37 Divisible by 25 58
Table 1.8 Deep-Fat Frying Temperature 38 Table 1.30 Direct-Reading Table for Increasing
Table 1.9 Coatings for Deep-Fat Fried Foods 39 Home-Size Recipes with Ingredient
Amounts Given in Volume
Table 1.10 Dipper Equivalents 39 Measurement and Divisible by 8 64
Table 1.11 Ladle Equivalents 40
Table 1.12 Cold Storage Temperatures 40
Specific Food Information
Table 1.13 Refrigerator Defrosting Times for
Table 2.1 Suggestions for Appetizers 74
Meats, Seafood, and Poultry 41
Table 2.2 Number of Hors d’oeuvres
Table 1.14 Temperatures and Bacteria Growth 41
to Prepare per Person 75
Table 1.15 Safe Internal Temperatures for
Table 2.3 Entree Party Trays 76
Cooked Foods 42
Table 2.4 Name Suggestions for Hors
Table 1.16 Food Serving Temperatures and
d’oeuvres and Appetizers 77
Holding Times 43
Table 3.1 Expresso-Based Coffee Drinks 88
Table 1.17 Food Cooling and Storage
Procedures 44 Table 5.1 Approximate Scaling Weights and
Yields for Cakes 157
Table 1.18 Time and Temperature Standards
for Reducing Food Safety Hazards Table 5.2 Approximate Scaling Weights for
of Potentially Hazardous Foods 45 Icings and Fillings 159
Table 1.19 General Guidelines for Handling Table 5.3 Guide for Using Frozen Fruit in
Food Safely 46 Pies or Cobblers 230
Table 1.20 Recommended Mixer Bowl and Table 6.1 Guide to Natural Cheeses 269
Steam-Jacketed Kettle Sizes for Table 7.1 Fin Fish Buying and Cooking Guide 288
Selected Products 47 Table 7.2 Methods of Cooking Fin Fish and
Table 1.21 Pan Capacities for Baked Products 48 Shellfish 289
ix
x Tables

Table 7.3 Timetable for Steaming Fish and Table 10.1 Cooking Methods for Poultry 434
Shellfish 290 Table 10.2 Roasting Guide for Poultry
Table 7.4 Marketing Sizes for Oysters 292 (Defrosted) 438
Table 7.5 Count and Descriptive Names for Table 11.1 Basic Salad Bar Components 464
Raw Shrimp 292 Table 11.2 Storage Temperatures for Fresh
Table 8.1 Names and Suggested Cooking Produce 471
Methods for Beef Cuts 312 Table 15.1 Timetable for Boiling or Steaming
Table 8.2 Timetable for Roasting Beef 314 Fresh and Fozen Vegetables 631
Table 8.3 Timetable for Roasting Lamb and
Veal 315 Menu Planning Information
Table 8.4 Timetable for Roasting Pork in Table 16.1 Types of Menu Patterns 688
Conventional Oven 316 Table 16.2 Comparison of School Foodservice
Table 8.5 Timetable for Roasting Pork in Menu Planning Systems 693
Convection Oven 316 Table 16.3 Food-Based Menus Meal Plans 696
Table 8.6 Timetable for Broiling Meat 318 Table 16.4 Age Group Nutrient Standards for
Table 8.7 Timetable for Griddle Broiling NuMenus and Assisted NuMenus 698
Meat 320 Table 16.5 Grade Group Nutrient Standards
Table 8.8 Timetable for Direct Grilling Steak 321 for NuMenus, Assisted NuMenus,
Table 8.9 Timetable for Braising Meat 322 and Food-Based Menu Planning 699
Table 8.10 Timetable for Cooking Meat in Table 16.6 Child and Adult Care Food
Liquid (Large Cuts and Stews) 322 Program USDA Food Chart 700
Table 8.11 Portioning Guidelines for Pizza 341
Wine and Bar Information
Table 8.12 Approximate Temperatures and
Times for Cooking Pizza 343 Table 17.1 Wine and Food Pairing Guide 714
Table 9.1 Basic Proportions and Yields for Table 17.2 Wine Purchasing Guide 716
Converted Rice 367 Table 17.3 Guidelines for Stocking a Bar 716
Figure 4.1 Shaping bread loaves 137 Figure 10.4 Carving a turkey 439
Figure 4.2 Shaping bowknot rolls 147 Figure 11.1 Suggested salad bar arrangement 464
Figure 4.3 Braiding yeast dough 147 Figure 11.2 Coring head lettuce 465
Figure 4.4 Shaping and panning Figure 11.3 Preparing leaf lettuce 466
cloverleaf rolls 147 Figure 11.4 Peeling and sectioning grapefruit 469
Figure 4.5 Shaping crescent rolls 147 Figure 11.5 Preparing fresh pineapple 470
Figure 4.6 Shaping Parker House rolls 148 Figure 15.1 Terminology for cutting
Figure 4.7 Preparing cinnamon rolls 153 vegetables and other foods 632
Figure 5.1 Layering and icing a sheet cake 157 Figure 16.1 Food Pyramid 689
Figure 5.2 Suggested cutting configurations Figure 17.1 Table arrangement for a
for cakes 159 reception or tea 705
Figure 5.3 Rolling and filling a jelly roll 187 Figure 17.2 Table arrangement for buffet
Figure 5.4 Preparing pastry for a baked service, single line 707
pie shell 224 Figure 17.3 Table arrangement for buffet
Figure 5.5 Preparing pastry for a two-crust service, single line using two
pie 226 tables 707
Figure 8.1 Shaping meat loaf 332 Figure 17.4 Table arrangement for buffet
service, double line 708
Figure 9.1 Frequently used pasta shapes 362
Figure 17.5 Table arrangement for buffet
Figure 9.2 Shapes and descriptions of
service, double serving line 708
selected pasta 363
Figure 17.6 Double straight-line service for a
Figure 10.1 Skinning and boning a turkey
buffet serving large numbers 709
breast 434
Figure 17.7 Cover for a served meal 711
Figure 10.2 Cutting up a whole chicken 435
Figure 17.8 Placement of food and cover for
Figure 10.3 Breading techniques for poultry 437
a served meal 712

xi
Breads (following p. 112) Salads, garnishes and sandwiches
Exhibit I Bread Loaves (following p. 496)
Exhibit II Bread Shapes Exhibit X Salad Greens
Exhibit III Bread Shapes Exhibit XI Fresh Herbs
Exhibit IV Yeast Bread Variations Exhibit XII Common Types of Mushrooms
Exhibit V Quick Breads Exhibit XIII Types of Onions
Exhibit XIV Melon Varieties
Meats (following p. 336) Exhibit XV Variety Produce
Exhibit VI Beef Steak Color Guide Exhibit XVI Fruit and Vegetable Garnishes
Exhibit VII Buffet Display Exhibit XVII Entree Salads and Presentation Ideas
Exhibit VIII Plate Garnishes Exhibit XVIII Entree Salads
Exhibit IX Food Garnishes Exhibit XIX Entree Salads

(following p. 528)
Exhibit XX Sandwich Presentations
Exhibit XXI Sandwich Presentations

xii
F
or 65 years Food For Fifty has been used as a re- gestions for variations of the basic recipes. Recipes are
source for students in quantity food production organized according to menu categories. Each recipe
and for persons in foodservice management. chapter begins with a discussion of general principles
The book is designed to provide food professionals and production techniques for preparing the recipes in
with quantity recipes that they can prepare with confi- that section. Nutritive values for recipes are identified.
dence of quality outcomes. Since the book’s origin, re- Part Three, “Planning the Menu and Special
visions have been made to keep abreast of the chang- Events,” offers guidelines and procedures for planning
ing foodservice industry. In the eleventh edition, new meals, with special considerations for different types of
recipes have been added that reflect current food pref- foodservices. Planning and serving special foodservice
erences and modern eating styles. Nonmeat pasta, events such as receptions, buffets, and banquets are dis-
bean, and vegetable entree recipes have been added in cussed, and guidelines for planning are provided.
this new edition. Besides keeping current with new At the back of the book is a list of menu planning
recipes, a longtime goal of Food For Fifty is to provide suggestions (Appendix A), information for using
basic standardized recipes that can be adapted to pro- herbs and spices in cooking and regional flavorings
duce similar foods as shown in popular magazines, (Appendix B), potentially hazardous foods (Appendix
home-size cookbooks, and trade publications. New C), food evaluation criteria (Appendix D), food cus-
recipes in this edition support this goal. This edition toms of different religions (Appendix E), and an ex-
also includes an expanded section for planning and panded glossary of menu and cooking terms.
serving special meals, new temperature guidelines and
safe food-handling standards, and updated food pro-
duction procedures. The food safety guidelines in Food
For Fifty will be useful for developing Hazard Analysis DISTINCTIVE FEATURES
Critical Control Point (HACCP) plans. OF THE BOOK
Food For Fifty has been recognized for many years as a
ORGANIZATION dependable resource for students and food produc-
OF THE BOOK tion managers. Part One is considered by many to be
an indispensable reference for food production infor-
Food For Fifty is divided into three major sections. Part mation. The various tables are helpful for menu plan-
One, “Food Production Information,” is intended as a ning, purchasing, and when making food production
guide to planning and preparing food in quantity. assignments.
The section begins with a comprehensive table of Dietitians, foodservice managers, and faculty
amounts of food needed to serve 50 people, followed members have for many years depended on the stan-
by tables of weights and measures, including metric dardized recipes in Food For Fifty. Recipes are written in
conversion, and tables to help in changing weights of an easy-to-read format, with standardized procedures
recipe ingredients to volume measurement. Direc- that allow quality products to be prepared consistently.
tions for increasing recipe yields are helpful when Suggested variations for many of the recipes increase
adapting recipes given in this book to different yields the value of the recipe section. In this revised book,
and for increasing home-size recipes for quantity pro- recipes now include new foods on the market and
duction. Preparation guides include tables for cook- foods appropriate for helping clientele meet their di-
ing temperatures, time and temperature standards, etary standards. This new edition serves to increase
guidelines for handling food safely, food substitutions Food For Fifty’s value as a resource for a broad variety of
and equivalents, and pan and mixer bowl capacities. recipes. The nutrition information will be helpful in
Part Two, “Recipes,” includes a wide variety of tested planning and preparing foods for clientele with dif-
recipes given in yields of 50 portions and with many sug- ferent needs. Food production, service, and storage
xiii
xiv Preface

procedures will be useful for developing Hazard ● Recipes and ideas from trade and popular food
Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) plans. magazines and cookbooks can be produced in
Menu planning information is given in concise quantity by adapting the basic standardized recipes
terms in Part Three. The discussion of planning proce- in Food for Fifty.
dures and the menu suggestion list in Appendix A are ● Variations are included for most recipes. Users are
helpful to students and to foodservice managers whose given suggestions for producing food products con-
responsibilities include menu planning. Many foodser- sistent with contemporary eating trends.
vices are called upon today to provide food for special
● Quality standards for food products may be estab-
events such as holiday meals, buffets, and coffees, re-
lished by using standardized recipes that produce a
ceptions, and teas. Part Three offers suggestions for
consistent quality product. Specific standards are
menus, organization, and service of these functions.
available for some product categories.
Many new full-color pictures present the reader with
attractive photo inserts of breads, meats, produce, and ● Food costs are easily established for recipes. Each
salads. The pictures are provided to generate ideas and recipe includes specific portion size information
offer creative food production and service suggestions. and instructions for ensuring accurate yields.
● Efficient labor procedures were considered for all
recipes. Students and foodservice operators may
use the recipes as a model for making products us-
USING THE BOOK ing the minimum amount of labor.
Food for Fifty is written for many users. Students in quan- ● Standardized recipes assure that accurate nutrition
tity food production and foodservice management use values can be assigned to serving portions. Users
the text as a resource for learning the standards, skills, of the book can review the recipe’s nutrient values
and techniques inherent in quality food production. In- and make adjustments, if required, for a specific
structors find beneficial the basic menu planning and population.
food production features that equip them with the tools ● Food for Fifty can be used for planning teas, receptions,
necessary for designing teaching modules and super- and special functions. Part Three brings together
vising laboratories. The reliability of the recipes, tables, general information and guidelines useful for orga-
and charts in the book allows instructors to make as- nizing events. Parts One and Two support the plan-
signments with confidence of a quality outcome. Addi- ning function with food production information.
tionally, the text provides a resource for instructing stu- ● Using Food for Fifty as a resource to direct accurate
dents on how to plan and serve special foodservice food production techniques is intended in the de-
functions. Foodservice administrators, managers, and sign of the recipes. Each recipe can be used for com-
supervisors are also users of the text. Food for Fifty is a municating the techniques necessary for producing
comprehensive resource for quantity recipes and tech- a quality product. In addition, the material prefac-
nical food production information. The book serves as ing each recipe category provides general text in-
a foundation for the food production system. formation that supports the standardized tech-
The uses for Food for Fifty as both an instructional niques specified in the recipes.
text and food production resource are unlimited. We
believe the following examples of how the text can be
used address many of the book’s strengths.
● Amounts of food to purchase may be easily deter-
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
mined. Accurate calculations are achieved by using
Kansas State University’s residence hall dining pro-
the purchasing and yield information in Part One
gram “make-it-from-scratch” culture and high quality
and the standardized recipes in Part Two.
standards have for 65 years helped shape Food For
● While the recipes yield approximately 50 servings, Fifty. It is with sincere appreciation for the support
they can be adjusted easily for other yields by using and encouragement from John Pence, associate direc-
the recipe extension procedures in Part One. A tor of Housing and Dining Services, for continuing to
computer CD-ROM may be purchased for extend- value this endeavor. Special acknowledgment is given
ing recipes in Food For Fifty. to John and his management staff for their support,
● Menu planning is simplified by the lists of food item advice, and creative ideas. Without their help, this
names, by menu categories, in both Appendix A and eleventh edition of Food For Fifty would not have been
the Index. Food for Fifty also provides a comprehensive possible. Appreciation is extended also to the many
file of standardized recipes that can support the menu colleagues, family, and friends who have, through the
plan. General information on writing menus for var- course of association with the author, made this revi-
ious kinds of foodservices is included in the text. sion of Food For Fifty possible.
Mary Molt, Ph.D., R.D., L.D., is assistant director of etetic Association, Kansas Dietetic Association, and
Housing and Dining Services and assistant professor the National Association of College and University
of Hotel, Restaurant and Institution Management, Food Services (NACUFS). Twice she was recognized
and Dietetics (HRIMD), Kansas State University. She with the NACUFS Richard Lichtenfelt Award for out-
holds a bachelor’s degree from University of Ne- standing service to the association. In 1995 Dr. Molt
braska—Kearney, a master’s degree from Oklahoma received the Theodore W. Minah Award, the highest
State University, and a Ph.D. from Kansas State Uni- honor given by NACUFS, for exceptional contribu-
versity. Dr. Molt has 27 years of professional experi- tion to the food service industry. The Award For Ex-
ence at Kansas State University, with a joint appoint- cellence in the Practice of Management was given to
ment in academe and food service administration. Dr. Molt in 1997 by the American Dietetic Associa-
Current responsibilities include team teaching Food tion. She serves on several University committees in-
Production Management, assisting with supervised cluding Faculty Senate and Intercollegiate Athletic
practice experiences for senior students in Dietetics, Council (Chair), advises students in Kappa Omicron
and directing management activities for three resi- Nu, and holds membership in several honor societies
dence hall dining centers serving more than 8000 including Kappa Omicron Nu, Delta Kappa Gamma,
meals per day. Dr. Molt is active in the American Di- Phi Upsilon Omicron, and Phi Kappa Phi.

xv
 PART I

Chapter 1 Food Production Information 3

 CHAPTER 1

nformation in this section is presented as a guide ings are needed or if the number of portions re-
I for ordering food, for adjusting recipes, and for the
planning, preparation, and serving of food. Quantities
quired is other than 50, an adjustment in the amount
to prepare or purchase must be made. Because
to prepare are based on 50 average-size portions, as preparation losses must be considered in determin-
are most of the recipes, but adjustments may need to ing the amount to purchase for 50 portions, the
be made to fit individual situations. Rarely is 50 the ex- ready-to-serve raw yield or the yield of cooked prod-
act number to be served, and the portion size will vary uct is given for some products, with the amount as
according to the type of foodservice and the needs of purchased (AP) to buy. The yields, which are given in
the individuals in the group. Tables are included that decimal parts of a pound, can be converted to ounces
will assist with these recipe adjustments. by using Table 1.27 (p. 54).
Most ingredients in the recipes are given in weights,
but if volume measurements (teaspoons, tablespoons, Table 1.2—Approximate Yield in the Preparation of
cups, quarts, or gallons) are to be used, tables in this sec- Fresh Fruits and Vegetables. When ordering fresh
tion will assist in converting from weights to measures. fruits and vegetables, the loss in preparation must be
Metric measures are not used in the recipes, but charts considered when determining the amount to buy. The
for converting to metric are included. approximate yield after preparation of one pound of
Basic information on cooking temperatures, food fruit or vegetable, listed in this table (p. 21), is given
equivalents and substitutions, and equipment capac- in decimal parts of a pound but can be converted to
ity is also given. A guide for use of herbs and spices ounces by referring to Table 1.27.
and a glossary of cooking and menu terms are found
at the end of the book. Table 1.3—Food Weights and Approximate Equiv-
alents in Measure. Information in this table (pp.
22–31) is useful when converting recipe ingredients
from weight to measure or vice versa and is helpful in
HOW TO USE TABLES adjusting or enlarging recipes.
AND GUIDES
Table 1.4—Basic Equivalents in Measures and
Table 1.1—Amounts of Food to Serve 50. This Weights. Table 1.4 (p.31) is useful when converting
table (pp. 10–20) suggests amounts of food to pur- measures (gallons, quarts, or cups) to smaller units such
chase and prepare for 50 persons, based on the por- as cups, tablespoons, or teaspoons. Metric equivalents
tion size listed in the table. If larger or smaller serv- are given for commonly used weights and measures.
3
4 Chapter 1 Food Production Information

Table 1.5—Weight and Approximate Measure are those recommended for optimum food quality
Equivalents for Commonly Used Foods. In Table and safety.
1.5 (pp. 32–35), the equivalent measures (teaspoons,
tablespoons, and cups) are given for selected ingredi- Table 1.17—Food Cooling and Storage Procedures.
ents, such as flour, salt, and sugar, that appear repeat- Recommended procedures for safely cooling foods
edly in recipes. This information is the same as that are provided (p. 44).
given in Table 1.3 except that the equivalents are
given for weights from 1 to 16 ounces. Table 1.18—Time and Temperature Standards for
Reducing Food Safety Hazards of Potentially Haz-
Table 1.6—Metric Equivalents for Weight, Measure, ardous Foods (PHF). Table 1.18 (p. 45) provides in-
and Temperature. Table 1.6 (p. 36) provides infor- formation that will be helpful in developing a Hazard
mation that will be helpful in converting weights, Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) plan.
measures, and temperatures as given in recipes to
metric equivalents. Table 1.19—General Guidelines for Handling Food
Safely. This table (p. 46) describes practices that are
Table 1.7—Convection Oven Baking Times and essential for handling food safely.
Temperatures. Information in this table (p. 37) is
useful when using convection ovens. Times and tem- Table 1.20—Recommended Mixer Bowl and Steam-
peratures in recipes included in Food for Fifty have Jacketed Kettle Sizes for Selected Products. This
been tested using conventional ovens. table (p. 47) is helpful in determining the size of
mixer bowl and steam-jacketed kettle needed for se-
Table 1.8—Deep-Fat Frying Temperatures. Table lected food items in portions ranging from 50 to 500.
1.8 (p. 38) provides guidelines for the deep-fat frying If the equipment on hand is not large enough for the
of different types of menu items. amount required, the recipe may need to be made in
two or three batches.
Table 1.9—Coatings for Deep-Fat Fried Foods.
Proportions of ingredients are given (p. 39) for typical Table 1.21—Pan Capacities for Baked Products.
coatings for deep-fat fried foods. This table (p. 48) gives the maximum capacity of
different-sized pans for baking breads, cakes, or pies
Table 1.10—Dipper Equivalents. Approximate mea- and is useful when enlarging or adjusting recipes.
sure and weight for different-sized dippers (scoops)
are given (p. 39). Suggested uses for different food Table 1.22—Counter Pan Capacities. Capacities,
products are also included. suggested uses, and number of portions for different
sizes of counter pans are given in this table (p. 49).
Table 1.11—Ladle Equivalents. Table 1.11 (p. 40)
gives measures and approximate weights for different- Table 1.23—Common Can Sizes. Can sizes, with
sized ladles and the size to use for different menu items. approximate weight or measure and number of por-
tions, are included in this table (p. 49) as a purchasing
Table 1.12—Cold Food Storage Temperatures. Rec- guide.
ommended refrigerator and freezer storage time and
temperatures are given (p. 40) for safe storage of foods. Table 1.24—Ingredient Substitutions. This table
(pp. 50–51) is useful when it is necessary to substitute
Table 1.13—Refrigerator Defrosting Times for one ingredient for another in a recipe.
Meats, Seafood, and Poultry. Approximate defrost-
ing times are given (p. 41) for roasts, chops, steaks, Table 1.25—Ingredient Proportions. This table
and poultry. (p. 52) gives the relative proportion of ingredients in
preparing certain types of foods. It is useful when
Table 1.14—Temperatures and Bacteria Growth. evaluating recipes for the proper amount of leaven-
The relationships between temperature and bacteria ing agents, seasonings, and thickening agents.
growth are given (p. 41).
Table 1.26—Guide for Rounding Off Weights and
Table 1.15—Safe Internal Temperatures for Cooked Measures. When enlarging home-sized recipes, the
Foods. Table 1.15 (p. 42) provides safe end-point resulting quantities may be difficult to measure. Table
cooking temperatures for meats, fish, and poultry. 1.26 (p. 53) aids in rounding fractions and complex
measurements into amounts that are as simple as pos-
Table 1.16—Food Serving Temperatures and Hold- sible to weight or measure while maintaining the ac-
ing Times. Serving temperatures in this table (p. 43) curacy needed for quality control.
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II.—The following are the answers to Viscount

Palmerston’s Circular of the 12th August, 1833.
Some of these Reports were transmitted to the
Commissioners without signatures. The names of the
Authors have been since furnished by the Foreign
Office, and are now added.
America.
1. New York—Report from James Buchanan, Esq., his Majesty’s Consul 109
2. New Hampshire and Maine—Report from J. Y. Sherwood, Esq., Acting
British Consul 111
3. The Floridas and Alabama—Report from James Baker, Esq., his
Majesty’s Consul 113
4. Louisiana—Report from George Salkeld, Esq., ditto 115
5. South Carolina—Report from W. Ogilby, Esq., ditto 117
6. Georgia—Report from E. Molyneux, Esq., ditto 123
7. Massachusetts—Report from the Right Hon. Sir Charles R. Vaughan,
his Majesty’s Minister 123
8. New Jersey—Report from ditto 673
9. Pennsylvania—Report from Gilbert Robertson, Esq., his Majesty’s
Consul 135
 Europe.
1. Sweden—Report from Lord Howard de Walden, his Majesty’s Minister 343
2. Russia—Report from Hon. J. D. Bligh, ditto 323
3. Prussia—Report from Robert Abercrombie, Esq., his Majesty’s Chargé-
d’Affaires 425
4. Wurtemberg—Report from Sir E. C. Disbrowe, his Majesty’s Minister 483
5. Holland—Report from Hon. G. S. Jerningham, his Majesty’s Chargé-
d’Affaires 571
6. Belgium—Report from the Right Hon. Sir R. Adair, his Majesty’s
Minister 591
7. Switzerland—Report from D. R. Marries, Esq., ditto 190
8. Venice—Report from W. T. Money, Esq., his Majesty’s Consul-General 663

III.—Answers to the Questions suggested by the

Commissioners, and circulated by Viscount
Palmerston on the 30th November, 1833, have been
received from the following places:
America.
1. Massachusetts—by George Manners, Esq., his Majesty’s Consul 680
2. New York—by James Buchanan, Esq., ditto 156
3. Mexico—R. Packenham, Esq., his Majesty’s Chargé-d’Affaires 688
4. Carthagenia de Columbia—by J. Ayton, Esq., British Pro-Consul 164
5. Venezuela—by Sir R. K. Porter, his Majesty’s Consul 161
6. Maranham—by John Moon, Esq., ditto 692
7. Bahia—John Parkinson, Esq., ditto 731
8. Uruguay—by T. S. Hood, Esq., his Majesty’s Consul-General 722
9. Hayti—by G. W. Courtenay, Esq., ditto 167

Europe.
1. Norway—by Consuls Greig and Mygind 695
2. Sweden—by Hon. J. H. D. Bloomfield, his Majesty’s Secretary of
Legation 372
 (a). Gottenburg—by H. T. Liddell, Esq., his Majesty’s Consul 384
3. Russia—by Hon. J. D. Bligh, his Majesty’s Minister 330
(a). Archangel—by T. C. Hunt, Esq., his Majesty’s Consul 337
(b). Courland—by F. Kienitz, Esq., ditto 339
4. Denmark—by Peter Browne, Esq., his Majesty’s Secretary of Legation 263
(a). Elsinore—by F. C. Macgregor, Esq., his Majesty’s Consul 292
5. Hanseatic Towns:
(a). Hamburgh—by H. Canning, Esq., his Majesty’s Consul-General 390
(b). Bremen—by G. E. Papendick, Esq., British Vice-Consul 410
(c). Lubeck—by W. L. Behnes, Esq., ditto 415
6. Mecklenburgh—by G. Meyen, Esq., ditto 421
7. Dantzig—by Alexander Gibsone, Esq., his Majesty’s Consul 459
8. Saxony—by Hon. F. R. Forbes, his Majesty’s Minister 479
9. Wurtemberg—by Hon. W. Wellesley, Chargé-d’Affaires 507
10. Bavaria—by Lord Erskine, his Majesty’s Minister 554
11. Frankfort on the Main—by —— Koch, Esq., his Majesty’s Consul 564
12. Amsterdam—by R. Melvil, Esq., ditto 581
13. Belgium:
(a). Antwerp and Boom—by Baron de Hochepied Larpent, his
Majesty’s Consul 627
(b). Ostend—by G. A. Fauche, Esq., ditto 641
14. France:
(a). Havre—by Arch. Gordon, Esq., his Majesty’s Consul 179
(b). Brest—by A. Perrier, Esq., ditto 724
(c). La Loire Inferieure—by Henry Newman, Esq., ditto 171
(d). Bourdeaux—by T. B. G. Scott, Esq., ditto 229
(e). Bayonne—by J. V. Harvey, Esq., ditto 260
(f). Marseilles—by Alexander Turnbull, Esq., ditto 186
15. Portugal—by Lieut. Col. Lorell, ditto 642
16. The Azores—by W. H. Read, Esq., ditto 643
17. Canary Islands—by Richard Bartlett, Esq., ditto 686
18. Sardinian States—by Sir Augustus Foster, his Majesty’s Minister 648
19. Greece—by E. J. Dawkins, Esq., ditto 665
(a). Patras—by G. W. Crowe, Esq., his Majesty’s Consul 668
20. European Turkey— 669

It is impossible, within the limits of a Preface, to

give more than a very brief outline of the large mass
of information contained in this volume, respecting
the provision made for the poor in America and in
the Continent of Europe.
 AMERICA.
It may be stated that, with respect to America, a
legal provision is made for paupers in every part of
the United States from which we have returns,
excepting Georgia and Louisiana; and that no such
provision exists in Brazil or in Hayti, or, as far as is
shown by these returns, in any of the countries
originally colonized by Spain.
The system in the United States was of course
derived from England, and modified in consequence,
not only of the local circumstances of the country,
but also of the prevalence of slavery in many of the
States, and of federal institutions which by
recognising to a certain extent each State as an
independent sovereignty, prevent the removal from
one State of paupers who are natives of another.
Such paupers are supported in some of the northern
districts not by local assessments, but out of the
general income of the State, under the name of state
paupers.
The best mode of treating this description of
paupers is a matter now in discussion in the United
States.
 The following passage in the report of the
Commissioners appointed to revise the civil code of
Pennsylvania, shows the inconveniences arising from
the absence of a national provision for them: (pp.
139, 143.)

We may be permitted to suggest one alteration of

the present law, of considerable importance. In
Massachusetts and New York, and perhaps in some
other States, paupers who have no settlement in the
State are relieved at the expense of the State. In this
commonwealth the burthen falls upon the particular
district in which the pauper may happen to be. This
often occasions considerable expense to certain
counties or places from which others are exempt. The
construction of a bridge or canal, for instance, will
draw to a particular neighbourhood a large number of
labourers, many of whom may have no settlement in
the State. If disabled by sickness or accident, they
must be relieved by the township in which they
became disabled, although their labour was employed
for the benefit of the State or county, as the case may
be, and not for the benefit of the township alone. If
provision were made for the payment of the expenses
incurred by the township in such case out of the
county, or perhaps the State treasury, we think that it
would be more just, and that the unhappy labourer
would be more likely to obtain adequate relief, than if
left to the scanty resources of a single township. A
case which is stated in the second volume of the
Pennsylvania Reports (Overseers v. M’Coy, p. 432), in
which it appeared, that a person employed as a
labourer on the State Canal, and who was severely
wounded in the course of his employment, was passed
 from one township to another, in consequence of the
disinclination to incur the expense of supporting him,
until he died of the injury received, shows in a strong
light the inconvenience and perils of the present
system respecting casual paupers, and may serve to
excuse our calling the attention of the legislature to
the subject.

On the other hand, the Commissioners appointed

to revise the poor laws of Massachusetts, after
stating that the national provision in their State for
the unsettled poor has existed ever since the year
1675, recommend its abolition, by arguments, a
portion of which we shall extract, as affording an
instructive picture of the worst forms of North
American pauperism: (pp. 59, 60, 61.)

It will appear (say the Commissioners), that of the

whole number more or less assisted during the last
year, that is, of 12,331 poor, 5927 were State’s poor,
and 6063 were town’s poor; making the excess of
town’s over State’s poor to have been only 497. The
proportion which, it will be perceived, that the State’s
poor bear to the town’s poor, is itself a fact of startling
interest. We have not the means of ascertaining the
actual growth of this class of the poor. But if it may be
estimated by a comparison of the State’s allowance for
them in 1792-3, the amount of which, in round
numbers, was $14,000, with the amount of the
allowance twenty-seven years afterwards, that is, in
1820, when it was $72,000, it suggests matter for very
serious consideration. So sensitive, indeed, to the
increasing weight of the burthen had the legislature
become even in 1798, when the allowance was but
$27,000 that “an Act” was passed, “specifying the kind
of evidence required to accompany accounts exhibited
for the support of the poor of the Commonwealth.” In
1821, with a view to still further relief from the evil,
the law limited its allowance to 90 cents a week for
adults, and to 50 cents for children; and again, for the
same end, it was enacted, in 1823, that “no one over
twelve, and under sixty years of age, and in good
health, should be considered a State pauper.” The
allowance is now reduced to 70 cents per week for
adults, and proportionally for children; and in the cases
in which the poor of this class have become an integral
part of the population of towns, and in which, from
week to week, through protracted sickness, or from
any cause, they are for the year supported by public
bounty, the expense for them is sometimes greater
than this allowance. But this is comparatively a small
proportion of the State’s poor: far the largest part, as
has been made to appear, consists of those who are
but occasionally assisted, and, in some instances, of
those of whom there seems to be good reason to infer,
from the expense accounts, that they make a return in
the product of their labour to those who have the
charge of them, which might well exonerate the
Commonwealth from any disbursements for their
support. Even 70 cents a week, therefore, or any
definable allowance, we believe, has a direct tendency
to increase this class of the poor; for a charity will not
generally be very resolutely withheld, where it is
known that, if dispensed, it will soon be refunded. And
we leave it to every one to judge whether almsgiving,
under the influence of this motive, and to a single and
defined class, has not a direct tendency at once to the
increase of its numbers, and to a proportionate
earnestness of importunity for it.
 It is also not to be doubted, that a large proportion
of this excess of State’s poor, more or less assisted
during the year, consist of those who are called in the
statements herewith presented, “wandering or
travelling poor.” The single fact of the existence among
us of this class of fellow-beings, especially considered
in connexion with the facts, that nearly all of them are
State’s poor, and that, to a great extent, they have
been made what they are by the State’s provision for
them, brings the subject before us in a bearing, in
which we scarcely know whether the call is loudest to
the pity we should feel for them, or the self-reproach
with which we should recur to the measures we have
sanctioned, and which have alike enlarged their
numbers and their misery. Nor is it a matter of mere
inference from our tables, that the number is very
large of these wandering poor. To a considerable
extent, and it is now regretted that it was not to a
greater extent, the inquiry was proposed to overseers
of the poor, “How many of the wandering, or travelling
poor, annually pass under your notice?” And the
answers, as will appear in the statements, were from
10 to 50, and 100 to 200. Nor is there a more abject
class of our fellow-beings to be found in our country
than is this class of the poor. Almshouses, where they
are to be found, are their inns, at which they stop for
refreshment. Here they find rest, when too much worn
with fatigue to travel, and medical aid when they are
sick. And, as they choose not to labour, they leave
these stopping places, when they have regained
strength to enable them to travel, and pass from town
to town, demanding their portion of the State’s
allowance for them as their right. And from place to
place they receive a portion of this allowance, as the
easiest mode of getting rid of them, and they talk of
the allowance as their “rations;” and, when lodged for
a time, from the necessity of the case, with town’s
poor, it is their boast that they, by the State’s
allowance for them, support the town’s inmates of the
house. These unhappy fellow-beings often travel with
females, sometimes, but not always their wives; while
yet, in the towns in which they take up their temporary
abode, they are almost always recognized and treated
as sustaining this relation. There are exceptions, but
they are few, of almshouses in which they are not
permitted to live together. In winter they seek the
towns in which they hope for the best
accommodations and the best living, and where the
smallest return will be required for what they receive.
It is painful thus to speak of these human beings, lest,
in bringing their degradation distinctly before the mind,
we should even for a moment check the
commiseration which is so strongly claimed for them.
We feel bound therefore to say, that bad as they are,
they are scarcely less sinned against in the treatment
they receive, than they commit sin in the lawlessness
of their lives. Everywhere viewed, and feeling
themselves to be outcasts; possessed of nothing,
except the miserable clothing which barely covers
them; accustomed to beggary, and wholly dependent
upon it; with no local attachments, except those which
grow out of the facilities which in some places they
may find for a more unrestrained indulgence than in
others; with no friendships, and neither feeling nor
awakening sympathy; is it surprising that they are
debased and shameless, alternately insolent and
servile, importunate for the means of subsistence and
self-gratification, and averse from every means but
that of begging to obtain them? The peculiar attraction
of these unhappy fellow beings to our Commonwealth,
and their preference for it over the States to the south
of us, we believe is to be found in the legal provision
 which the State has made for them. Your
Commissioners have indeed but a small amount of
direct evidence of this; but the testimony of the
chairman of the overseers in Egrement to this fact,
derived from personal knowledge, was most
unequivocal, and no doubt upon the subject existed in
the minds of the overseers in many other towns. But
shall we therefore condemn, or even severely blame,
them? Considered and treated, in almost every place,
as interlopers, strollers, vagrants; as objects of
suspicion and dread, and, too often, scarcely as human
beings; the cheapest methods are adopted of sending
them from town to town, and often with the assurance
given to them that there, and not here, are
accommodations for them, and that there they may
enjoy the bounty which the State has provided for
them. Would such a state of things, your
Commissioners ask, have existed in our
Commonwealth, if a specific legal provision had not
been made for this class of the poor? Or, we do not
hesitate to ask, if the Government had never
recognized such a class of the poor as that of State’s
poor,—and, above all, if compulsory charity, in any
form, had never been established by our laws, would
there have been a twentieth part of the wandering
poor which now exists in it, or by any means an equal
proportion of poor of any kind with that which is now
dependent upon the taxes which are raised for them?
Your Commissioners think not.

Either an increase of the evils of pauperism, or a

clearer perception of them, has induced most of the
States during the last 10 years to make, both in their
laws for the relief of the poor and in the
administration of those laws, changes of great
importance. They consist principally in endeavouring
to avoid giving relief out of the workhouse, and in
making the workhouse an abode in which none but
the really destitute will continue. Compared with our
own, the system is, in general, rigid.
In the detailed account of the workhouses in
Massachusetts, (pages 68 to 93,) the separation of
the sexes appears to be the general rule wherever
local circumstances do not interfere: a rule from
which exceptions are in some places made in favour
of married couples. And in the returns from many of
the towns it is stated that no relief is given out of the
house.
The following passages from the returns from New
Jersey, Pennsylvania and New York, are also
evidences of a general strictness of law and of
administration.
By the laws of New Jersey,

The goods and chattels of any pauper applying for

relief are to be inventoried by the overseer before
granting any relief, and afterwards sold to reimburse
the township, out of the proceeds, all expenses they
have been at; all sales of which by the pauper, after he
becomes chargeable, are void.[2]
 The same rule prevails in Pennsylvania. When any
person becomes chargeable, the overseers or
directors of the poor are required to sue for and
recover all his property, to be employed in defraying
the expense of his subsistence.[3]
By the laws of the same State,

No person shall be entered on the poor-book of any

district, or receive relief from any overseers, before
such person, or some one in his behalf, shall have
procured an order from two magistrates of the county
for the same; and in case any overseer shall enter in
the poor-book or relieve any such poor person without
such order, he shall forfeit a sum equal to the amount
or value given, unless such entry or relief shall be
approved of by two magistrates as aforesaid. (p. 142.)

Nor is the relief always given gratuitously, or the

pauper always at liberty to accept and give it up as
he may think fit; for by a recent enactment[4] the
guardians are authorized—

To open an account with the pauper, and to charge

him for his maintenance, and credit him the value of
his services; and all idle persons who may be sent to
the almshouse by any of the said guardians, may be
detained in the said house by the board of guardians,
and compelled to perform such work and services as
the said board may order and direct, until they have
compensated by their labour for the expenses incurred
on their account, unless discharged by special
 permission of the board of guardians; and it shall be
the duty of the said board of guardians to furnish such
person or persons as aforesaid with sufficient work and
employment, according to their physical abilities, so
that the opportunity of reimbursement may be fully
afforded: and for the more complete carrying into
effect the provisions of this law, the said board of
guardians are hereby authorized and empowered to
exercise such authority as may be necessary to compel
all persons within the said almshouse and house of
employment to do and perform all such work, labour,
and services as may be assigned to them by the said
board of guardians, provided the same be not
inconsistent with the condition or ability of such
person.
And whereas it frequently happens that children who
have been receiving public support for indefinite
periods are claimed by their parents when they arrive
at a proper age for being bound out, the guardians are
authorized to bind out all children that have or may
receive public support, either in the almshouse or
children’s asylum, although their parents may demand
their discharge from the said institutions, unless the
expenses incurred in their support be refunded.

In New York the administration of the law is even

more severe than this enactment:—

With respect to poor children, (says Mr. Buchanan,)

a system prevails in New York, which, though
seemingly harsh and unfeeling, has a very powerful
influence to deter families from resorting to the
commissioners of the poor for support, or an asylum in
the establishment for the poor; namely, that the
commissioners or overseers apprentice out the
children, and disperse them to distant parts of the
State; and on no account will inform the parents where
they place their children. (p. 110.)

[2] New Jersey Revised Laws, p. 679.

[3] Act of 1819, p. 155.
[4] Act of 5th March, 1828, p. 149.
 EUROPE.
It appears from the returns that a legal claim to
relief exists in Norway, Sweden, Russia, Denmark,
Mecklenburg, Prussia, Wurtemberg, Bavaria, and the
Canton de Berne; but does not exist in the Hanseatic
Towns, Holland, Belgium, France, Portugal, the
Sardinian States, Frankfort, Venice, Greece, or
Turkey. The return from Saxony does not afford data
from which the existence or non-existence of such a
claim can be inferred.
The great peculiarity of the system in the North of
Europe is the custom of affording relief by quartering
the paupers on the landholders in the country and on
householders in the towns.

NORWAY.

Consuls Greig and Mygind, the authors of the

return from Norway, state, that the—

Impotent through age, cripples, and others who

cannot subsist themselves, are, in the country districts,
 billeted or quartered on such of the inhabitants (house
and landholders in the parish) as have the means of
providing for them. By them they are furnished with
clothing and food, and they are in return expected to
perform such light services as they can. In the
distribution, respect is had to the extent or value of the
different farms, and to the number of the indigent,
which varies greatly in different parishes. In some they
have so few poor that only one pauper falls to the lot
of five or six farms, who then take him in rotation;
whilst in other parishes they have a pauper quartered
on every farm or estate all the year round, and on the
larger ones several. (p. 696.)

It is to be regretted that the information respecting

the existing poor laws of Norway is not more full and
precise. The return contains two projects of law, or
in other words, bills, for the relief of the poor in the
country and in towns, drawn up in 1832, in
obedience to a government commission issued in
1829; and also the arguments of the commissioners
in their support; but it does not state how far these
projects have been adopted.
In treating of the modes of relief, the bill for the
country states that,

Section 26. The main principle to be observed

everywhere in affording relief is to maintain “lœgd,” or
the outquartering of the paupers, wherever it has
existed or can be introduced, taking care to avoid the
separation of families. The regulation of “lœgd,” where
it has been once established among the farms, should
be as durable and as little liable to alteration as
possible; so that a fresh arrangement should be made
only in instances where there exists a considerable
decrease or increase in the number of the paupers
quartered out, or a marked alteration in the condition
of the occupiers upon whom they are so quartered. In
the event of a fresh arrangement, it is desirable that
the existing paupers hitherto provided for should, in as
far as may be consistent with justice towards the
parties to whom they are quartered, continue to have
“lœgd” upon the same farm or farms where they have
hitherto been relieved. Families not belonging to the
class of peasants are bound to have paupers quartered
upon them in “lœgd” in case they cultivate land;
however, the overseer of the district is competent to
grant permission to them as well as to other “lœgds-
ydere,” to let out the “lœgd” when he finds that they
individually are unable to provide for the pauper on
their own lands, and the letting out can be effected
without any considerable inconvenience to the latter.
(p. 704.)
27. When a new regulation of “lœgd” takes place, or
new “lœgd” is established, a statement in writing of
the “lœgd,” or outquartering intended, is to be issued
by the commission, or by the overseer on its behalf,
containing the name of the pauper to be outquartered,
and the farm or farms on which he shall receive
“lœgd,” and in case it is on several, the rotation, and
for what period, on each. In case the “lœgd” is only to
be during the winter, or during a certain part of the
year, this likewise is to be stated. In like manner the
houseless and others, who are provided with relief in
kind from particular farms, are to be furnished with a
note setting forth the quantity the individual has to
demand of each farm, and the time at which he is
entitled to demand the same. In default of the
furnishing of these contributions in proper time, they
are to be enforced by execution, through the
lensmand. (p. 705.)
5. In case the house poor, and other poor who are
not quartered out, conduct themselves improperly, are
guilty of idleness, drunkenness, incivility, obstinacy or
quarrelsomeness, the overseer is entitled to give them
a serious reprimand; and in case this is unattended
with any effect, to propose in the poor commission the
reduction of the allowance granted to the offender, to
the lowest scale possible. Should this prove equally
devoid of effect, or the allowance not bear any
reduction, he may, in conjunction with the president of
the commission, report the case, at the same time
stating the names of the witnesses, to the
sorenskriver[5], who on the next general or monthly
sitting of the court, after a brief inquiry, by an
unappealable sentence shall punish the guilty with
imprisonment not exceeding 20 days, upon bread and
water.
In case of a like report from the superintendent of
the “lœgd,” of improper conduct on the part of the
pauper quartered out, the overseer shall give the said
offending pauper a severe reprimand; and in case this
likewise proves devoid of effect, the mode of
proceeding to be the same as has been stated already
in reference to the house poor.
36. In case the person with whom a pauper has
been quartered out do not supply adequate relief, or ill
use the pauper so quartered upon him, and is
regardless of the admonitions of the overseer, an
appeal to the sorenskriver is to take place, and in other
respects the mode of proceeding is to be the same as
is enacted in s. 35: when all the conduct complained of
can be proved, for which purpose, in default of other
witnesses, the combined evidence of the
superintendent of the “lœgd,” and of the overseer, is to
be deemed sufficient, the offending party to be fined,
according to his circumstances and the nature of the
case, from 2 to 20 specie dollars, and in case of ill-
usage, to be imprisoned on bread and water for from 5
to 10 days; and in the event of a repetition of the
offence, for from 10 to 20 days.
39. None may beg, but every person who is in such
want that he cannot provide for himself and those
belonging to him, shall apply for aid to the competent
poor commission, or to the overseer. In case any one
is guilty of begging, for the first offence he is to be
seriously admonished by the overseer of the district in
which he has begged, who is likewise to point out to
him what consequences will follow a repetition of the
offence. In case he offends afterwards, he is to be
punished according to the enactments set forth in s.
35; and afterwards, in case of a repetition of the
offence, with from two months’ to a year’s
confinement in the house of correction.
A person is not to be accounted a beggar who asks
only for food, when it appears that his want of
sustenance is so great that unless he tried to procure
immediate relief he would be exposed to perish of
hunger, provided he immediately afterwards applies to
the overseer of the district for relief; or in case the
poor administration is unable to relieve all the poor in
years of scarcity, save in a very scanty manner, and the
hungry mendicant then confines himself to the
soliciting of food. (p. 706.)
 The bill directs that the poor-fund shall consist, in
the country,
1. Of the interest of legacies, and other property
belonging to it.
2. An annual tax of 12 skillings (equal according to
Dr. Kelly, Univ. Cambist, vol. 1, p. 32, to 2s. 6d.
sterling,) on each hunsmand or cottager, and on
each man servant, and six skillings on each woman
servant.
3. A duty on stills equal to half the duty paid to the
State.
4. Penalties directed by the existing laws to be
paid over to that fund.
5. The property left by paupers, if they leave no
wife or children unprovided for.
6. An annual assessment on the occupiers of land,
and on all others capable of contributing, such as
men servants, clerks, tutors, and pilots.
In towns,
Of all the above-mentioned funds, except No. 2,
and of a tax of one skilling (2½d. sterling) per pot
on all imported fermented liquors.
We have already remarked that the report does
not state how far this bill has passed into a law, or
how its enactments differ from the existing law: they
appear likely, unless counteracted by opposing
causes, to lead to considerable evils. The relief by
way of lœgd resembles in some respects our
roundsman system. It is, however, less liable to
abuse in one respect, because the lœgd, being
wholly supported by the lœgd-yder, must be felt as
an incumbrance by the farmer, instead of a source of
profit. On the other hand, the situation of the
country pauper cannot be much worse than that of
the independent labourer; and in towns, though this
temptation to idleness and improvidence may be
avoided by giving relief in the workhouse, the
temptation to give out-door and profuse relief must
be considerable, since a large portion of the poor-
fund is derived from general sources, and only a
small part from assessment to which the distributors
of relief are themselves exposed. It is probable that
the excellent habits of the population, and the great
proportion of landowners, may enable the
Norwegians to support a system of relief which in
this country would soon become intolerable.

[5] Sorenskriver, an officer in the country, whose

duties are chiefly those of a registrar and judge in the
lowest court.
 SWEDEN.

The fullest statement of the pauperism of Sweden

is to be found in a paper by M. de Hartsmansdorff,
the Secretary of State for Ecclesiastical Affairs, (p.
368); an extract from Colonel Forsell’s Swedish
Statistics, published in 1833, (p. 375); and Replies to
the Commissioners’ Queries from Stockholm, (p.
372), and from Gottenburgh, (p. 384.)
M. de Hartsmansdorff states that every parish is
bound to support its own poor, and that the fund for
that purpose arises from voluntary contribution, (of
which legacies and endowments appear to form a
large portion,) the produce of certain fines and
penalties, and rates levied in the country in
proportion to the value of estates, and in towns on
the property or income of the inhabitants. Settlement
depends on residence, and on that ground the
inhabitants of a parish may prevent a stranger from
residing among them. A similar provision is
considered in the Norwegian report, and rejected, (p.
718,) but exists in almost every country adopting the
principle of parochial relief, and allowing a settlement
by residence. An appeal is given, both to the pauper
and to the parishioners, to the governor of the
province, and ultimately to the King.
 M. de Hartsmansdorff’s paper is accompanied by a
table, containing the statement of the persons
relieved in 1829, which states them to have
amounted to 63,348 out of a population of
2,780,132, or about one in forty-two. This differs
from Colonel Forsell’s statement, (p. 376,) that in
1825 they amounted to 544,064, or about one in
five. It is probable that Colonel Forsell includes all
those who received assistance from voluntary
contributions. “In Stockholm,” he adds, “there are 83
different boards for affording relief to the poor,
independent one of the other, so that it happens
often that a beggar receives alms at three, four, or
five different places.” There is also much discrepancy
as to the nature and extent of the relief afforded to
the destitute able-bodied. We are told in the
Stockholm return, (p. 372,) that no legal provision is
made for them; but by the Gottenburgh return, (pp.
384 and 386,) it appears that they are relieved by
being billeted on householders, or by money.
The following severe provisions of the law of the
19th June, 1833, seem directed against them. By
that law any person who is without property and
cannot obtain employment, or neglects to provide
himself with any, and cannot obtain sureties for the
payment of his taxes, rates, and penalties, is
denominated unprotected (förswarlös). An
unprotected person is placed almost at the disposal
of the police, who are to allow him a fixed period to
obtain employment, and to require him to proceed in
search of it to such places as they think fit.

Should any person, (the law goes on to say,) who

has led an irreproachable life, and has become
unprotected, not through an unsteady or reprehensible
conduct, but from causes which cannot be reasonably
laid to his charge, and who has obtained an extension
of time for procuring protection, still remains without
yearly employment or other lawful means of support,
and not be willing to try in other places to gain the
means of support, or shall have transgressed the
orders that may have been given him, and (being a
male person) should not prefer to enlist in any
regiment, or in the royal navy, or should not possess
the requisite qualifications for that purpose, the person
shall be sent to be employed on such public works as
may be going on in the neighbourhood, or to a work
institution within the county, until such time as another
opportunity may offer for his maintenance; he shall
however be at liberty, when the usual notice-day
arrives, and until next moving-time, to try to obtain
legal protection with any person within the county who
may require his services, under the obligation to return
to the public work institution in the event of his not
succeeding. Should there be no public work to be had
in the neighbourhood, or the person cannot, for want
of necessary room, be admitted, he shall be sent to a
public house of correction, and remain there, without
however being mixed with evil-disposed persons or
such as may have been punished for crimes, until
 some means may be found for him or her to obtain a
lawful maintenance.—(p. 362.)
Servants or other unprotected persons who have of
their own accord relinquished their service or constant
employ, and by means of such or other reprehensible
conduct have been legally turned out of their employ,
or who do not perform service with the master or
mistress who has allowed such person to be rated and
registered with them, or who, in consequence of
circumstances which ought to be ascribed to the
unprotected person himself, shall become deprived of
their lawful means of support, but who may not be
considered as evil-disposed persons, shall be bound to
provide themselves with lawful occupations within 14
days, if it be in a town, and within double that number
of days if it be in the country. Should the unprotected
person not be able to accomplish this, it shall depend
on Our lord-lieutenant how far he may deem it
expedient to grant a further extended time, for a
limited period, to a person thus circumstanced, in
order to procure himself means for his subsistence.—
(p. 363).
Such persons as may either not have been
considered to be entitled to an extension of time for
procuring lawful maintenance, or who, notwithstanding
such permission, have not been able to provide
themselves with the same, shall be liable to do work, if
a man, at any of the corps of pioneers in the kingdom,
and if a woman, at a public house of correction. If the
man is unfit for a pioneer, he shall in lieu thereof be
sent to a public house of correction.—(p. 363.)

It appears that pauperism has increased under the

existing system. Mr. Bloomfield states that since its
institution the number of poor has increased in
proportion to the population (p. 368). The Stockholm
return states that—

The main defect of the charitable institutions

consists in a very imperfect control over the application
of their funds, the parish not being accountable for
their distribution to any superior authority. This is so
much felt, that new regulations are contemplated for
bringing parish affairs more under the inspection of a
central board. Another great evil is, that each parish
manages its affairs quite independently of any other,
and frequently in a totally different manner; and there
is no mutual inspection among the parishes, which, it
is supposed, would check abuses. Again, parishes are
not consistent in affording relief; they often receive
and treat an able-bodied impostor (who legally has no
claim on the parish) as an impotent or sick person,
whilst many of the latter description remain unaided.
The Swedish artizan is neither so industrious nor so
frugal as formerly; he has heard that the destitute
able-bodied are in England supported by the parish; he
claims similar relief, and alleges his expectation of it as
an excuse for prodigality or indifference to saving.—(p.
375.)
That the number of poor (says Colonel Forsell) has
lately increased in a far greater progression than
before, is indeed a deplorable truth. At Stockholm, in
the year 1737, the number of poor was 930; in 1825
there were reckoned 15,000 indigent persons. Their
support, in 1731, cost 9000 dollars (dallar). In 1825,
nearly 500,000 rix dollars banco were employed in
alms, donations, and pensions. Perhaps these facts
explain why, in Stockholm, every year about 1500
individuals more die than are born, although the
climate and situation of this capital is by no means
insalubrious; for the same may be said of almshouses
as is said of foundling hospitals and similar charitable
establishments, that the more their number is
increased, the more they are applied to.
In the little and carefully governed town of Orebro,
the number of poor during the year 1780 was no more
than 70 or 80 individuals, and in the year 1832 it was
400! In the parish of Nora, in the province of Nerike,
the alms given in the year 1814 were 170 rix-dollars 4
sk.; and in 1832, 2138 rix-dollars 27 sk.; and so on at
many other places in the kingdom. That the case was
otherwise in Sweden formerly, is proved by history.
Botin says that a laborious life, abhorrence of idleness
and fear of poverty, was the cause why indigent and
destitute persons could be found, but no beggars.
Each family sustained its destitute and impotent, and
would have deemed it a shame to receive support from
others.
When the accounts required from the
secretary of state for ecclesiastical The price of
affairs, regarding the number of and 8 kappar =
institutions for the poor, shall be 1½ doll., or
2s. 5d.
reduced to order, and issue from the
press, they must impart most important information.
By the interesting report on this subject by the Bishop
of Wexio, we learn, that the proportion of the poor to
the population is as 1 to 73 in the government of
Wexio, and as 1 to 54 in that of Jönköping. The
assessed poor-taxes are, on an average, for every farm
(hemman,) eight kappar corn in the former
government, and 12½ in the latter. With regard to the
institutions for the poor, it is said, the more we give
the more is demanded, and instead of the poor-rates
 being regulated by the want, the want is regulated by
the profusion of charities and poor-taxes.
In the bishopric of Wisby (Island of Gottland), the
proportion between the poor and those who can
maintain themselves, is far more favourable than in
that of Wexio; for in the former only 1 in 104
inhabitants is indigent, and in 22 parishes there is no
common almshouse at all. Among 40,000 individuals,
no more than 17 were unable to read.—(p. 377.)

RUSSIA.

A general outline of the provision for the poor in

Russia, is contained in the following extracts from Mr.
Bligh’s report, (pp. 328, 329, 330).

As far as regards those parts of the empire which

may most properly be called Russia, it will not be
necessary for me to detain your Lordship long, since in
them (where in fact by far the greatest portion of the
population is to be found), the peasantry, being in a
state of slavery, the lords of the soil are induced more
by their own interest, than compelled by law, to take
care that its cultivators, upon whom their means of
deriving advantage from their estates depend, are not
entirely without the means of subsistence.
Consequently, in cases of scarcity, the landed
proprietors frequently feel themselves under the
necessity (in order to prevent their estates from being
depopulated) of expending large sums, for the purpose
of supplying their serfs with provisions from more
favoured districts. There is no doubt, however, (of
which they must be well aware) that in case of their
forgetting so far the dictates of humanity and of self-
interest, as to refuse this assistance to the suffering
peasantry, the strong hand of a despotic government
would compel them to afford it.
The only cases, therefore, of real misery, which are
likely to arise, are, when soldiers, who having outlived
their 25 years’ service, and all the hardships of a
Russian military life, fail in getting employment from
the government as watchmen in the towns, or in other
subordinate situations, and returning to their villages,
find themselves unsuited by long disuse to agricultural
pursuits, disowned by the landed proprietors, from
whom their military service has emancipated them,
and by their relations and former acquaintances, who
have forgotten them.
I am led to understand, that in all well-regulated
properties, in order to provide for the contingencies of
bad seasons, the peasants are obliged to bring, to a
magazine established by the proprietor, a certain
portion of their crops, to which they may have
recourse in case of need.
In the estates belonging to the government, which
are already enormous, and which are every day
increasing, in consequence of the constant foreclosing
of the mortgages by which so many of the nobility held
their estates under the crown, more special
enactments are in vigour; inasmuch as in them, all
serfs incapable of work are supported by their
relations, and those whose relations are too poor to
afford them assistance, are taken into what may be
termed poor-houses, which are huts, one for males,
the other for females, built in the neighbourhood of
the church, at the expense of the section or parish,
which is also bound to furnish the inmates with fuel,
food, and clothing.
The parish must, moreover, establish hospitals for
the sick, for the support of which, besides boxes for
receiving alms, at the church and in the hospitals
themselves, all fines levied in the parish are to be
applied.
The clergy are compelled to provide for the poor of
their class, according to an ordonnance, regulating the
revenues set apart for this object, and enacting rules
for the distribution of private bequests and charities.
In Courland, Esthonia, and Livonia, the parish (or
community) are bound to provide for the destitute to
the utmost of their means, which means are to be
derived from the common funds; from bequests, or
from any charitable or poor fund which may exist; and
in Esthonia, from the reserve magazines of corn,
which, more regularly than in Russia, are kept full by
contributions from every peasant.
When those are inadequate, a levy is made on the
community, which is fixed by the elders and confirmed
by the district authorities; and when this rate is levied,
the landowners or farmers contribute in proportion to
the cultivation and works they carry on, or to the
amount of rent they pay; and the labourers according
to the wages they receive.
The overseers consist of the elder of the village,
(who is annually elected by the peasantry) and two
assistants, one of whom is chosen from the class of
landholders or farmers, and the other from the
labourers, and who are confirmed by the district police.
One of these assistants has to give quarterly detailed
accounts to the district authorities, and the elder, on
quitting office, renders a full account to the
community.
Those who will not work voluntarily may be
delivered over to any individual, and compelled to work
for their own support, at the discretion of the elder
and his assistants.
Those poor who are found absent from home, are
placed in the hands of the police, and transferred to
their own parishes.
All public begging is forbid by very strict regulations.
In the external districts of the Siberian Kirghese,
which are for the most part peopled by wandering
tribes, the authorities are bound to prevent, by every
means in their power, any individual of the people
committed to their charge from suffering want, or
remaining without superintendence or assistance, in
case of their being in distress.
All the charitable offerings of the Kirghese are
received by the district authorities, and as they consist
for the most part of cattle, they are employed, as far
as necessary, for the service of the charitable
institutions; the surplus is sold, and the proceeds,
together with any donations in money, go towards the
support of those establishments; when voluntary
contributions are not sufficient for that purpose, the
district authorities give in an estimate of the quantity
of cattle of all sorts required to make up the deficiency,
and according to their estimate, when confirmed by
the general government, the number of cattle required
in each place is sent from the general annual levy
made for the service of the government.
 In the Polish Provinces incorporated with the empire,
as the state of the population is similar to that of
Russia Proper, the proprietors in like manner, in cases
of need, supply their peasantry with the means of
existence; under ordinary circumstances, however, the
portions of land allotted to them for cultivation, which
afford them not only subsistence, but the means of
paying a fixed annual sum to their lords, and the
permission which is granted to them of cutting wood in
the forests for building and fuel, obviate the necessity
of their receiving this aid.
The same system existed in the Duchy of Warsaw
prior to 1806, and every beggar and vagabond was
then sent to the place of his birth, where, as there was
not a sufficiency of hands for the cultivation of the soil,
he was sure to find employment, or to be taken care of
by his master, whilst there were enough public
establishments for charity to support the poor in the
towns belonging to the government, and those, who
by age, sickness, or natural deformities, were unable
to work.
But when the establishment of a regular code
proclaimed all the inhabitants of that part of Poland
equal in the eye of the law, the relations of the
proprietor and the peasant were entirely changed; and
the former having no power of detaining the latter
upon his lands, except for debt legally recognised, was
no longer obliged to support them.
So great and sudden a change in the social state of
the country soon caused great embarrassment to the
government, who being apprehensive of again altering
a system which involved the interests of the landed
proprietors, the only influential class in the country, for
a long time eluded the consideration of the question,
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