JAVA PROGRAMMING

Through Eclipse IDE

By,
Dr.Vidya Rajasekaran
Skilling & Placement Coordinator
SPEC , Hyderabad.
1. Sample Java Program
 First Java Program
// First Program End-of-line comment
package examples;
White space
public class HelloWorld
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
System.out.println("Training on Java Programming");
} // end method main End-of-line comment
} // end class HelloWorld End-of-line comment
Output
 // First Program  Single line comment / end-of-line comment.

 /* My very first

Java Program */  Multiple-line comment (Begins & Ends with a

Delimiter).

 /** Java doc comments */  Enable programmer to embed

program documentation directly in the program.

 public class HelloWorld  Programmer defined class /User

defined class. (Every program should contain at least one class).

 class  Is the keyword , followed by class name – HelloWorld.

2. Java Reserved Keywords
 Java Keywords – Reserved Words
1. List of Java Keywords
2. abstract: Specifies that a class or a method is abstract.
3. assert: Used for debugging purposes.
4. Boolean: Declares a variable of type Boolean.
5. break: Exits from a loop or switch statement.
6. byte: Declares a variable of type byte.
7. case: Defines a branch in a switch statement.
8. catch: Catches exceptions generated by try statements.
9. char: Declares a variable of type char.
10. class: Declares a class.
11. const: Reserved keyword (not used).
12. continue: Skips the current iteration of a loop.
13. default: Specifies the default block of code in a switch statement.
14. do: Starts a do-while loop.
15. double: Declares a variable of type double.
16. else: Specifies a block of code to be executed if a condition is false.
17. enum: Declares an enumerated type.
1. extends: Indicates that a class is inheriting from a super class.
2. final: Defines an entity that cannot be modified (class, method, or variable).
3. finally: Block of code that is always executed after a try-catch block.
4. float: Declares a variable of type float.
5. for: Starts a for loop.
6. goto: Reserved keyword (not used).
7. if: Tests a condition.
8. implements: Specifies that a class implements an interface.
9. import: Imports other Java packages or classes.
10. instanceof: Tests whether an object is an instance of a specific class or interface.
11. int: Declares a variable of type int.
12. interface: Declares an interface.
13. long: Declares a variable of type long.
14. native: Specifies that a method is implemented in native code using JNI (Java Native
Interface).
15. new: Creates new objects.
16. null: Represents a null reference.
17. package: Declares a package.
18. private: An access modifier indicating private access.
19. protected: An access modifier indicating protected access.
1. public: An access modifier indicating public access.
2. return: Exits from a method and optionally returns a value.
3. short: Declares a variable of type short.
4. static: Indicates a variable/method belongs to the class rather than instances of the class.
5. strictfp: Restricts floating-point calculations to ensure portability.
6. super: Refers to the super class of the current object.
7. switch: Starts a switch statement.
8. synchronized: Ensures that a method or block of code is thread-safe.
9. this: Refers to the current object.
10. throw: Throws an exception.
11. throws: Declares the exceptions that a method can throw.
12. transient: Indicates that a field should not be serialized.
13. try: Starts a block of code that will be tested for exceptions.
14. void: Specifies that a method does not return a value.
15. volatile: Indicates that a variable may be changed unexpectedly.
16. while: Starts a while loop.
17. var : (introduced in Java 10 for local variable type inference)
3. print, println, printf
 3.1 System.out.print
public class PrintExample
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
System.out.print("Hello, ");
System.out.print("world!");
System.out.print(" This is on the same line.");
}
}

Output:
Hello, world! This is on the same line.
 3.2 System.out.println
public class PrintlnExample
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
System.out.println("Hello, ");
System.out.println("world!");
System.out.println("This is on a new line.");
}
}

Output:
Hello,
world!
This is on a new line.
 Difference between ‘System.out.print’ and
‘System.out.println’
 System.out.print and System.out.println are methods used to
print messages to the console.
System.out.print System.out.println
Function: Prints the specified Function: Prints the specified message
message to the console. to the console.
Behavior: Does not append a Behavior: Appends a newline
newline character at the end of the character at the end of the message.
message.
Result: The cursor remains on the Result: The cursor moves to the
same line after printing the beginning of the next line after printing
message, so subsequent print the message, so subsequent print
statements will continue on the statements will appear on a new line.
same line.
 Answer Me !

public class MixedExample

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
System.out.print("Hello, ");
System.out.println("world!");
System.out.print("This is on the same line. ");
System.out.println("This is on a new line.");
}
}
 Output

Hello, world!
This is on the same line. This is on a new line.
 3.3 printf

Printf: It is similar to System.out.print and System.out.println, but

with more control over the formatting of the output.
Syntax:

System.out.printf(format, arguments);

format: A format string containing text and format specifiers.

arguments: Arguments that correspond to the format specifiers in the
format string.
 Format Specifiers
1) %d: Integer

2) %f: Floating-point number

3) %s: String

4) %c: Character

5) %b: Boolean

6) %%: Percent sign

7) %n: Newline
 Formatting Integers and Strings
public class PrintfExample
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
String name = "Vidya";
int age = 35;
System.out.printf("Name: %s, %n Age: %d ", name, age);
}
}

Output:
Name: Vidya,
Age: 35
4. Escape Sequences in Java
 Escape Sequences

1. Newline (\n): Moves the cursor to the beginning of the next

line.

2. Tab (\t): Inserts a horizontal tab.

3. Double Quote (\"): Prints a double quote character.

4. Backslash (\\): Prints a backslash character.

 4.1 Newline (\n)
public class NewlineExample
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
System.out.println("Hello,\n world!");
}
}

Output:
Hello,
world!
 4.2 Tab (\t)
public class TabExample
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
System.out.println("Hello,\t world!");
}
}

Output:
Hello, world!

(A tab space is inserted between "Hello," and "world!")

 4.3 Double Quote (\")
public class DoubleQuoteExample
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
System.out.println("He said, \"Hello, world!\"");
}
}

Output:
He said, "Hello, world!"
 4.4 Backslash (\\)
public class BackslashExample
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
System.out.println("This is a backslash: \\");
}
}

Output:
This is a backslash: \
5. Common Syntax and Logical Error in
Java
 Introduction

 Java, beginners often encounter various types of errors.

 These can be broadly categorized into syntax errors and

logical errors.

 Understanding these errors and knowing how to debug them is

crucial for developing effective coding skills.

 Common syntax errors:
1. Missing semicolons: Every statement in Java must end with a
semicolon (;). Forgetting to add a semicolon results in a syntax error.
Example:
public class MissingSemicolon
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
System.out.println("Hello, World!")
}
}
Output:
Exception in thread "main" java.lang.Error: Unresolved compilation
problem:
Syntax error, insert ";" to complete BlockStatements
2. Mismatched braces: Each opening brace ({) must have a corresponding
closing brace (}). Mismatched braces lead to syntax errors and make the code
structure unclear.

Example:
public class MismatchedBraces
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
if (true)
{
System.out.println("This will cause an error");
}
Output:

Exception in thread "main" java.lang.Error: Unresolved compilation problem:

Syntax error, insert "}" to complete ClassBody
 Logical errors
Logical errors occur when the program compiles and runs but produces incorrect results.
These errors are harder to detect because the syntax is correct, but the logic is flawed.
1. Incorrect calculations: Logical errors in calculations can lead to incorrect outputs.
These errors might arise from using the wrong operators or misplacing parentheses.
Example:
public class IncorrectCalculation
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int a = 10;
int b = 5;
int result = a - b * 2;
System.out.println("Result: " + result);
}
}
Wrong Output:
Result: 0
2. Off-by-one errors: Off-by-one errors are common in loops and arrays where the loop iterates
one time too many or too few.
Example:
public class OffByOneError
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int[] numbers = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
for (int i = 0; i <= numbers.length; i++)
{
System.out.println(numbers[i]);
}
}
}
Wrong Output:
1
2
3
4
5
Exception in thread "main" java.lang.ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException: Index 5 out
of bounds for length 52.
 Answer Me!
import java.util.Scanner;
public class DebuggingExample {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.print("Enter the first number: ");
int num1 = scanner.nextInt();
System.out.print("Enter the second number: ");
int num2 = scanner.nextInt();
int sum = num1 + num2
System.out.println("Sum: " + sum);
int difference = num1 - num2 * 2;
System.out.println("Difference: " + difference);
}
}
 Output
Exception in thread "main" java.lang.Error: Unresolved compilation
problems:
Syntax error, insert ":: IdentifierOrNew" to complete ReferenceExpression
Syntax error, insert ";" to complete LocalVariableDeclarationStatement
------------------------------------------------------------------
Enter the first number: 2
Enter the second number: 2
Sum: 4
Difference: -2
------------------------------------------------------------------
Enter the first number: 2
Enter the second number: 2
Sum: 4
Difference: 0
6. Java Variables and Operators
 Variables
 Variables are fundamental elements in programming that store

data values which can be used and manipulated throughout a

program.

 In Java, a variable must be declared with a specific data type

before it can be used.

 This data type defines the kind of data the variable can hold, such as

integers, floating-point numbers, characters, and strings.

 Types of variables
Java supports several types of variables, classified mainly into two
categories: primitive types and reference types.
1. Primitive Types:
 int: Stores integers (whole numbers), e.g., 1, -2, 300.
 double: Stores double-precision floating-point numbers, e.g., 3.14, -
0.001, 2.718.
 float: Stores single-precision floating-point numbers, e.g., 3.14f, -
0.001f.
 char: Stores a single character, e.g., 'a', 'B', '$'.
 Boolean: Stores a value representing true or false.
 byte: Stores small integers from -128 to 127.
 short: Stores integers from -32,768 to 32,767.
 long: Stores large integers, e.g., 123456789L.
2. Reference Types:
 String: Stores a sequence of characters, e.g., "Hello, World!".

 Arrays: Stores a collection of elements of a single type.

 Objects: Instances of classes which can store multiple fields and

methods.
 Declaration and Initialization of Variables
Declaration:
 int age; // Declaring an integer variable named age
 double salary; // Declaring a double variable named salary
 String name; // Declaring a String variable named name

Initialization:
 age = 25; // Initializing the integer variable age with the value 25
 salary = 50000.75; // Initializing the double variable salary with the
value 50000.75
 name = "Alice"; // Initializing the String variable name with the value
"Alice"

Declaration and Initialization in One Step:

 int age = 25; // Declaring and initializing age in one step
 double salary = 50000.75; // Declaring and initializing salary in one step
 String name = "Alice"; // Declaring and initializing name in one step
 Example Program
public class VariablesExample
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int age = 25;
double salary = 45000.50;
String name = "John Doe";
System.out.println("Name: " + name);
System.out.println("Age: " + age);
System.out.println("Salary: " + salary);
}
}

Output:
Name: John Doe
Age: 25
Salary: 45000.5
7. Getting User Input in Java
 Scanner Class
To interact with users and obtain input during the execution of a Java
program, you can use the Scanner class. The Scanner class provides
methods to read various types of input, such as strings, integers,
and doubles.
Steps to Get User Input Using the Scanner Class
 Importing the Scanner Class:Before you can use the Scanner
class, you need to import it from the java.util package.
 Creating a Scanner Object: Create an instance of the Scanner
class to read input from the standard input stream (usually the
keyboard).
 Using Scanner Methods to Get Input: Use the methods
provided by the Scanner class to read different types of input.
Importing the Scanner Class
You need to import the Scanner class at the beginning of your Java
program:
import java.util.Scanner;
Creating a Scanner Object
Create an instance of the Scanner class:
Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in);

Using Scanner Methods to Get Input

The Scanner class provides several methods to read input of various types:
 nextInt(): Reads an integer.
 nextDouble(): Reads a double.
 nextLine(): Reads a string (including spaces).
 next(): Reads a string (up to a space).
import java.util.Scanner;

public class UserInputExample {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in); // Create a Scanner object to read input from the keyboard

// Getting an integer input

System.out.print("Enter an integer: ");
int integerValue = scanner.nextInt();
System.out.println("You entered: " + integerValue);

// Getting a double input

System.out.print("Enter a double: ");
double doubleValue = scanner.nextDouble();
System.out.println("You entered: " + doubleValue);

// Clearing the buffer before reading a string input

scanner.nextLine(); // Consume the remaining newline

// Getting a string input

System.out.print("Enter a string: ");
String stringValue = scanner.nextLine();
System.out.println("You entered: " + stringValue);

// Closing the scanner

scanner.close();
}
}
 Output
Enter an integer: 2
You entered: 2
Enter a double: 2.5
You entered: 2.5
Enter a string: Hello
You entered: Hello
8. Arithmetic Operators
 Arithmetic operators
Arithmetic operators are used to perform basic mathematical
operations. Java provides a set of arithmetic operators to handle
these tasks.

List of basic arithmetic operators

 Addition (+): Adds two operands.
 Subtraction (-): Subtracts the second operand from the first.
 Multiplication (*): Multiplies two operands.
 Division (/): Divides the first operand by the second. Note that if
both operands are integers, the result will be an integer (integer
division).
 Modulus (%): Returns the remainder of the division of the first
operand by the second.
 Example Program
import java.util.Scanner;
public class ArithmeticOperatorsExample
{
public static void main(String[] args) {
try (Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in))
{
System.out.print("Enter the first number: ");
int num1 = scanner.nextInt();
System.out.print("Enter the second number: ");
int num2 = scanner.nextInt();
int sum = num1 + num2;
int difference = num1 - num2;
int product = num1 * num2;
double quotient = (double) num1 / num2;
int remainder = num1 % num2;
System.out.println("Sum: " + sum);
System.out.println("Difference: " + difference);
System.out.println("Product: " + product);
System.out.println("Quotient: " + quotient);
System.out.println("Remainder: " + remainder);
}
}
}
 Output
Enter the first number: 4
Enter the second number: 2
Sum: 6
Difference: 2
Product: 8
Quotient: 2.0
Remainder: 0
9. Relational Operators
 Relational Operators
Relational operators are used to compare two values. The result of a relational
comparison is a Boolean value (true or false).

List of relational operators

 Equal to (==): Checks if two values are equal.
 Not equal to (!=): Checks if two values are not equal.
 Greater than (>): Checks if one value is greater than another.
 Less than (<): Checks if one value is less than another.
 Greater than or equal to (>=): Checks if one value is greater than or equal to
another.
 Less than or equal to (<=): Checks if one value is less than or equal to another.

Using relational operators to compare variables

Relational operators are commonly used in control statements like if, while, and for to
make decisions based on comparisons.
 Example Program
import java.util.Scanner;
public class RelationalOperatorsExample {
public static void main(String[] args) {
try (Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in)){
System.out.print("Enter the first number: ");
int num1 = scanner.nextInt();

System.out.print("Enter the second number: ");

int num2 = scanner.nextInt();

System.out.println("num1 == num2: " + (num1 == num2));

System.out.println("num1 != num2: " + (num1 != num2));
System.out.println("num1 > num2: " + (num1 > num2));
System.out.println("num1 < num2: " + (num1 < num2));
System.out.println("num1 >= num2: " + (num1 >= num2));
System.out.println("num1 <= num2: " + (num1 <= num2));
}
}
}
 Output
Enter the first number: 2
Enter the second number: 5
num1 == num2: false
num1 != num2: true
num1 > num2: false
num1 < num2: true
num1 >= num2: false
num1 <= num2: true
10. Logical Operators
 Logical operators
Logical operators are used to perform logical operations on boolean
expressions. They are particularly useful in control flow statements
such as if, while, and for loops, where multiple conditions need to be
combined.

List of Logical Operators

 Logical AND (&&): Returns true if both operands are true.
 Logical OR (||): Returns true if at least one of the operands is
true.
 Logical NOT (!): Returns the opposite boolean value of the
operand.
Using Logical Operators with Boolean Expressions
Logical operators allow you to combine multiple boolean expressions
to create more complex conditions.
 Example Program
import java.util.Scanner;
public class LogicalOperatorsExample {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.print("Enter your age: ");
int age = scanner.nextInt();
boolean isAdult = age >= 18;
boolean isSenior = age >= 65;
System.out.println("Is adult: " + isAdult);
System.out.println("Is senior: " + isSenior);
System.out.println("Is adult and senior: " + (isAdult && isSenior));
System.out.println("Is adult or senior: " + (isAdult || isSenior));
System.out.println("Is not adult: " + !isAdult);
}
}
 Output
Enter your age: 20
Is adult: true
Is senior: false
Is adult and senior: false
Is adult or senior: true
Is not adult: false
11. Increment and Decrement
Operators
 Increment and Decrement Operator
The increment (++) and decrement (--) operators are used to
increase or decrease the value of a variable by one, respectively.
They are commonly used in loops and other scenarios where a
variable needs to be modified in a concise manner.

Definition and usage of increment and decrement

operators
Increment Operator (++):
 The increment operator increases the value of a variable by one.
 Syntax: variable++ or ++variable.
Decrement Operator (--):
 The decrement operator decreases the value of a variable by one.
 Syntax: variable-- or --variable.
1)Pre-Increment and Post-Increment
Pre-Increment (++variable):The variable is incremented first,
and then the new value is used in the expression.
Post-Increment (variable++):The current value of the variable is
used in the expression first, and then the variable is incremented.

2) Pre-Decrement and Post-Decrement

Pre-Decrement (--variable):The variable is decremented first,
and then the new value is used in the expression.
Post-Decrement (variable--):The current value of the variable is
used in the expression first, and then the variable is decremented.
public class IncrementDecrementExample {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int a = 5; int b = 5; int c = 5; int d = 5; // Initializing variables
System.out.println("Post-Increment:"); // Post-Increment
System.out.println("a: " + a); // 5
System.out.println("a++: " + a++); // 5 (value of a is used, then incremented)
System.out.println("a after a++: " + a); // 6
System.out.println("\n Pre-Increment:"); // Pre-Increment
System.out.println("b: " + b); // 5
System.out.println("++b: " + ++b); // 6 (b is incremented first, then value is used)
System.out.println("b after ++b: " + b); // 6
System.out.println("\n Post-Decrement:"); // Post-Decrement
System.out.println("c: " + c); // 5
System.out.println("c--: " + c--); // 5 (value of c is used, then decremented)
System.out.println("c after c--: " + c); // 4
System.out.println("\n Pre-Decrement:"); // Pre-Decrement
System.out.println("d: " + d); // 5
System.out.println("--d: " + --d); // 4 (d is decremented first, then value is used)
System.out.println("d after --d: " + d); // 4
}
}
 Output
Post-Increment:
a: 5
a++: 5
a after a++: 6
Pre-Increment:
b: 5
++b: 6
b after ++b: 6

Post-Decrement:
c: 5
c--: 5
c after c--: 4
Pre-Decrement:
d: 5
--d: 4
d after --d: 4
 Answer Me!
public class IncrementDecrementExample {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int number = 10;
System.out.println("Original number: " + number);
number++;
System.out.println("After increment: " + number);
number--;
System.out.println("After decrement: " + number);
++number;
System.out.println(“First increment: " + number);
--number;
System.out.println(“First decrement: " + number);
}
}
 Output
Original number: 10
After increment: 11
After decrement: 10
First increment: 11
First decrement: 10
12. Assignment Operators
 Assignment Operators
Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables. Java provides several assignment operators to simplify
variable manipulation.

List of Assignment Operators

 Assignment (=):
 Assigns the value on the right to the variable on the left.
 Example: a = b;
 Add and Assign (+=):
 Adds the right operand to the left operand and assigns the result to the left operand.
 Example: a += b; is equivalent to a = a + b;
 Subtract and Assign (-=):
 Subtracts the right operand from the left operand and assigns the result to the left operand.
 Example: a -= b; is equivalent to a = a - b;
 Multiply and Assign (*=):
 Multiplies the right operand with the left operand and assigns the result to the left operand.
 Example: a *= b; is equivalent to a = a * b;
 Divide and Assign (/=):
 Divides the left operand by the right operand and assigns the result to the left operand.
 Example: a /= b; is equivalent to a = a / b;
 Modulus and Assign (%=):
 Takes the modulus of the left operand by the right operand and assigns the result to the left operand.
 Example: a %= b; is equivalent to a = a % b;
public class AssignmentOperatorsExample {
Example Program
public static void main(String[] args) {
// Initializing variables
int number = 10;
int value = 20;
// Using the assignment operator '='
System.out.println("Initial value of number: " + number); // 10
number = value;
System.out.println("After assignment (number = value): " + number); // 20
// Using the add and assign operator '+='
number += 5;
System.out.println("After += 5: " + number); // 25
// Using the subtract and assign operator '-='
number -= 3;
System.out.println("After -= 3: " + number); // 22
// Using the multiply and assign operator '*='
number *= 2;
System.out.println("After *= 2: " + number); // 44
// Using the divide and assign operator '/='
number /= 4;
System.out.println("After /= 4: " + number); // 11
// Using the modulus and assign operator '%='
number %= 3;
System.out.println("After %= 3: " + number); // 2
}
}
 Output

Initial value of number: 10

After assignment (number = value): 20
After += 5: 25
After -= 3: 22
After *= 2: 44
After /= 4: 11
After %= 3: 2
 Answer Me!
public class AssignmentOperatorsExample {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int number = 10;
number += 5;
System.out.println("After += 5: " + number);
number -= 3;
System.out.println("After -= 3: " + number);
number *= 2;
System.out.println("After *= 2: " + number);
number /= 4;
System.out.println("After /= 4: " + number);
number %= 3;
System.out.println("After %= 3: " + number);
}
}
 Output
After += 5: 15
After -= 3: 12
After *= 2: 24
After /= 4: 6
After %= 3: 0
13. Introduction to Control Flow
 Introduction
 Control flow is crucial for making decisions, repeating tasks,
and controlling the sequence in which code is executed.
 Control flow constructs allow you to create dynamic and
flexible programs.
 Control flow is the order in which individual statements,
instructions, or function calls are executed or evaluated in a
programming language.
 Understanding control flow is essential for writing programs
that can make decisions and perform repetitive tasks.
14. Conditional Statements
 Conditional statements allow a program to choose different paths
of execution based on certain conditions.
 In Java, the primary conditional statements are if, if-else, and
switch.
1) The if Statement: The if statement evaluates a boolean expression
and executes the block of code inside it if the expression is true.

Syntax: Example:

if (condition) int age = 18;

{ if (age >= 18)
// code to be executed {
if condition is true System.out.println("You
} are eligible to vote.");
2) The if-else Statement: The if-else statement provides an
alternative block of code that will execute if the if condition is false.
Syntax: Example:

if (condition) int age = 16;

{ if (age >= 18)
// code to be {
executed if condition System.out.println("You are
is true eligible to vote.");
} }
else else
{ {
// code to be System.out.println("You are not
executed if condition eligible to vote.");
is false }
}
3) The else if Ladder: When you have multiple conditions to
evaluate, else if ladder is used to check each condition in sequence.
Syntax: Example:
int score = 85;
if (condition1)
{ if (score >= 90)
// code to be executed if {
condition1 is true System.out.println("Grade: A");
}
}
else if (score >= 80)
else if (condition2)
{
{ System.out.println("Grade: B");
// code to be executed if }
condition2 is true else if (score >= 70)
} {
else System.out.println("Grade: C");
{ }
// code to be executed if all else
{
conditions are false
System.out.println("Grade: F");
}
}
4) The Nested if Statements: Placing an if statement inside another
if statement, which is known as nesting. This is useful for checking
multiple related conditions.
Syntax: Example:
int age = 25;
if (condition1) boolean hasLicense = true;
if (age >= 18)
{ {
if (condition2) if (hasLicense)
{ {
System.out.println("You can drive.");
// code to be }
executed if both else
conditions are {
System.out.println("You need a license to drive.");
true }
} }
} else
{
System.out.println("You are too young to drive.");
}
15. Switch Statements
 5) The switch Statement: The switch statement is an alternative to the if-else ladder when
you need to select one of many possible blocks of code to execute. The switch statement
compares a variable to multiple values (known as cases) and executes the block of code
corresponding to the first matching case.
Syntax: Example:
switch (variable) int day = 3;
{ switch (day)
case value1: {
// code to be executed if variable equals case 1:
value1
System.out.println("Monday");
break; break;
case 2:
case value2: System.out.println("Tuesday");
// code to be executed if variable equals
break;
value2
break; case 3:
System.out.println("Wednesday");
// more cases... break;
default: // more cases...
// code to be executed if none of the
default:
cases match System.out.println("Invalid day");
} }
 Switch with Multiple Case Labels
switch (grade)
{
case 'A':
case 'B':
case 'C':
System.out.println("Pass");
break;

case 'D':
case 'F':
System.out.println("Fail");
break;

default:
System.out.println("Invalid grade");
}
 Default Case
//The default case in a switch statement executes when none of the other cases
match.

int month = 13;

switch (month) {
case 1:
System.out.println("January");
break;
case 2:
System.out.println("February");
break;
// more cases...
default:
System.out.println("Invalid month");
}
16. Loops in Java
 Loops Introduction
 Loops are useful when you need to repeat a task, such as
iterating over elements in an array or performing a calculation
multiple times.

 Loops allow you to execute a block of code multiple times.

 There are different types of loops in Java, each suited to

different situations (while loop, do-while, for loop).
while Loop: The while loop continues to execute as long as its
condition is true.

Syntax: Example:

while (condition) int count = 0;

{ while (count < 5)
// code to be executed {
if true System.out.println("Count is: " +
} count);
count++;
}
do-while loop: The do-while loop is similar to the while loop, but it
guarantees that the loop body will be executed at least once, because
the condition is checked after the loop body.
Syntax: Example:
Do public class DoWhileLoopExample
{ {
// code to be public static void main(String[]
executed args) {
} while (condition); int i = 1;
do {
System.out.println("Count: " +
i);
i++;
} while (i <= 5);
}
}
for loop : The for loop is used when you know in advance how
many times you want to execute a statement or a block of
statements.
Syntax: Example:

for (initialization; condition; public class ForLoopExample {

update) public static void
{ main(String[] args) {
// code to be executed for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {
}
System.out.println("Count: " +
i);
}
}
}
for-each loop (Enhanced for loop): The for-each loop is used to
iterate over arrays or collections without explicitly managing the
loop counter.

Syntax: Example:
}
for (type variable : public class ForEachLoopExample {
collection) { public static void main(String[]
// code to be executed args) {
} int[] numbers = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
for (int num : numbers) {
System.out.println("Number:
" + num);
}
}
}
 Key Points
 for loop: Best when you know the number of iterations.

 while loop: Best when the condition needs to be checked before

executing the loop body.
 do-while loop: Best when the loop needs to run at least once,
regardless of the condition.
 for-each loop: Best for iterating over arrays or collections
without managing an index.
 These loops are essential for controlling the flow of a program in
Java.
17. Control Flow Statements in Loops
 Control flow statements in loops are used to alter the normal

sequence of execution within loops.

 In Java, these control flow statements include break, continue,

and return.

 Each of these has a specific role in managing how loops

execute and terminate.

 break Statement
The break statement is used to exit the loop immediately, regardless of
the iteration or condition. When break is encountered inside a loop,
the loop terminates, and control moves to the next statement after
the loop.
public class BreakExample { Output:
public static void main(String[] args) {
Count: 1
for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) { Count: 2
if (i == 3) {
break; // Exit the loop when i equals 3
}
System.out.println("Count: " + i);
}
}
}
 continue Statement
The continue statement skips the current iteration of the loop and
moves to the next iteration. When continue is encountered, the rest
of the code inside the loop for that iteration is skipped, and the loop
proceeds with the next iteration.
public class ContinueExample { Output:
public static void main(String[] args) {
Count: 1
for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) { Count: 2
if (i == 3) { Count: 4
continue; // Skip the current iteration when Count: 5
i equals 3
}
System.out.println("Count: " + i);
}
}
}
 return Statement
The return statement exits the method entirely. When return is
encountered in a loop, the loop terminates, and control is returned
to the caller of the method. If the loop is inside a method, it ends
the method execution.
public class ReturnExample Output:
{
Count: 1
public static void main(String[] args) Count: 2
{
for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {
if (i == 3) {
return; // Exit the method when i equals 3
}
System.out.println("Count: " + i);
}
System.out.println("This will not be printed.");
}
}
 Summary:
 break: Exits the loop immediately.
 continue: Skips the current iteration and continues with the next
one.
 return: Exits the method (and the loop if it's within a method).
 label: Used with break and continue to control flow in nested
loops.
 These control flow statements allow you to manage loops effectively
and ensure the logic behaves as expected under various conditions.
18. Logical Operators with Control Flow
Logical Operators
 Logical operators in Java (&&, ||, !) are often used in
conjunction with control flow statements (such as if, while,
and for loops) to make decisions and control the flow of the
program based on multiple conditions. Here's how logical
operators work with control flow:
 1. Logical AND (&&)
The && operator returns true only if both conditions are true. It is typically used
when you need multiple conditions to be true to execute a block of code.

Example with if statement:

public class LogicalAndExample {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int age = 25;
boolean hasLicense = true;

if (age >= 18 && hasLicense) {

System.out.println("You can drive.");
} else {
System.out.println("You cannot drive.");
}
}
}
 2. Logical OR (||)
 The || operator returns true if at least one of the conditions is true. It’s
useful when you want to execute a block of code if any one of several
conditions is true.
 Example with while loop:
public class LogicalOrExample {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int score = 80;
boolean hasBonus = true;

if (score > 90 || hasBonus) {

System.out.println("You win a prize!");
} else {
System.out.println("Try again next time.");
}
}
}
 3. Logical NOT (!)
 The ! operator inverts the boolean value of an expression. It’s useful when you want to
execute a block of code only when a condition is false.
 Example with while loop:
public class LogicalNotExample {
public static void main(String[] args) {
boolean isRunning = true;
int counter = 0;

while (!isRunning) {
System.out.println("The system is not running.");
counter++;
if (counter == 3) {
isRunning = true;
}
}
System.out.println("The system is now running.");
}
}
 4. Combining Logical Operators
 Logical operators can be combined to create complex conditions that control the flow of
the program.

public class CombinedLogicalExample {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int age = 30;
boolean isStudent = false;
boolean hasCoupon = true;

if ((age >= 18 && age <= 30) || isStudent || hasCoupon) {

System.out.println("You get a discount!");
} else {
System.out.println("No discount available.");
}
}
}
 5. Short-circuit Evaluation

 In Java, logical operators && and || use short-circuit evaluation.

This means:
 For &&: If the first condition is false, Java skips checking the
second condition because the whole expression is guaranteed to
be false.
 For ||: If the first condition is true, Java skips checking the
second condition because the whole expression is guaranteed to
be true.
 Example of short-circuiting with &&:
public class ShortCircuitExample {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int x = 5;
int y = 10;

if (x > 10 && ++y > 10) {

System.out.println("This will not print.");
}
System.out.println("y is: " + y);
}
}

Explanation: Since x > 10 is false, ++y > 10 is never evaluated, and

y remains 10.
 Example of short-circuiting with ||:
public class ShortCircuitOrExample {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int a = 5;
int b = 10;

if (a < 10 || ++b > 10) {

System.out.println("Condition is true.");
}
System.out.println("b is: " + b);
}
}

Explanation: Since a < 10 is true, ++b > 10 is never evaluated, and b remains 10.
 Summary
 && (AND): Executes the block only if all conditions are true.
 || (OR): Executes the block if at least one condition is true.
 ! (NOT): Reverses the boolean value of a condition.
 Short-circuiting: Stops evaluating expressions as soon as the
result is determined.
 These logical operators allow for more complex and flexible
control flows in loops and conditional statements, making your
code more powerful and efficient.
19. Nested Loops
20. Common Pitfalls and Best Practices
21. Debugging Control Flow Issues
OOPS
 Classes and Objects
Class:
A class is a group of objects which have common properties.
Example: Public Class Animal

Object:
An Object can be defined as an instance of a class. Any entity that
has state and behavior is known as an object.
Example: A dog is an object because it has states like color,
name, breed, etc. as well as behaviors like wagging the tail,
barking, eating, etc.
 Inheritance
Inheritance allows a new class (often called a
subclass or derived class) to inherit
properties and behaviors (fields and methods) Super
from an existing class (referred to as a super
class or base class). Class
Superclass and Subclass:
 Superclass (Base Class):The class whose
properties and methods are inherited by
another class.
 Subclass (Derived Class):The class that Derived
inherits properties and methods from
another class. Class
 Types of Inheritance
1) Single Inheritance: In single inheritance, a subclass inherits from
only one superclass. Most object-oriented languages, like Java,
support single inheritance.
2) Multiple Inheritance: Multiple inheritance allows a subclass to
inherit from more than one superclass. Java does not support
multiple inheritance with classes to avoid complexity and ambiguity
(known as the "Diamond Problem").
3) Hierarchical Inheritance: Hierarchical inheritance occurs when
multiple subclasses inherit from a single superclass.
4) Multilevel Inheritance: In multilevel inheritance, a class is
derived from another derived class, forming a chain of
inheritance.
5) Hybrid Inheritance: Hybrid inheritance is a combination of
two or more types of inheritance. Java can support hybrid
inheritance using interfaces.
 1. Single Inheritance
class Animal {
void eat() {
System.out.println("This animal eats food.");
}
}
class Dog extends Animal {
void bark() {
System.out.println("The dog barks.");
}
}
public class Main {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Dog myDog = new Dog();
myDog.eat(); // Inherited method from Animal class
myDog.bark(); // Method from Dog class
}}
 Superclass (Animal): The Animal class contains the method eat,
which is inherited by the Dog class.
Subclass (Dog): The Dog class inherits from the Animal class. This
means Dog has access to the eat method defined in Animal.
Method Calls:
myDog.eat(); - This line calls the eat method inherited from the Animal
class. Because Dog now inherits from Animal, this method is available to
the Dog class.
myDog.bark(); - This line calls the bark method that is specific to the
Dog class.

The Dog class needs to extend the Animal class to inherit its methods. Once
this inheritance relationship is correctly established using the extends
keyword, Dog can call methods from both the Dog class and the Animal
class, demonstrating the concept of inheritance in Java.
 2. Multiple Inheritance
interface Animal {
void eat();
}
interface Pet {
void play();
}
class Dog implements Animal, Pet {
public void eat() {
System.out.println("Dog eats.");
}
public void play() {
System.out.println("Dog plays.");
} }
public class Main {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Dog myDog = new Dog();
myDog.eat();
myDog.play();
} }
 Interfaces:
 An interface in Java is a reference type, similar to a class, that
can contain only constants, method signatures, default
methods, static methods, and nested types.

 Interfaces cannot contain any implementation.

 A class that implements an interface must provide implementations

for all of its methods.
Interfaces Animal and Pet:
 Animal and Pet are interfaces that declare abstract methods eat() and
play() respectively.
 Interfaces do not provide any implementation details, meaning the
methods are simply declared but not defined within the interfaces.
Class Dog Implements Multiple Interfaces:
 The Dog class implements both the Animal and Pet interfaces.
 By implementing these interfaces, Dog is required to provide concrete
implementations of the eat() method (from Animal) and the play()
method (from Pet).
Implementation of Methods:
 Inside the Dog class, both eat() and play() methods are defined. The eat()
method prints "Dog eats." and the play() method prints "Dog plays.".
Main Class:
 The Main class contains the main method, which is the entry point of the
program.
 A Dog object (myDog) is created, and both eat() and play() methods are
called on this object.
 3. Hierarchical Inheritance
class Animal {
void eat() {
System.out.println("This animal eats food.");
} }
class Dog extends Animal {
void bark() {
System.out.println("The dog barks.");
} }
class Cat extends Animal {
void meow() {
System.out.println("The cat meows.");
} }
public class Main {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Dog myDog = new Dog();
myDog.eat();
myDog.bark();
Cat myCat = new Cat();
myCat.eat();
myCat.meow();
} }
Superclass Animal:
 The Animal class is the parent (superclass) in this hierarchy.
 It has a method eat() that prints "This animal eats food.".
Subclass Dog:
 Dog is a subclass that extends the Animal class, meaning it inherits the eat()
method from Animal.
 Dog also has its own unique method, bark(), which prints "The dog
barks.".
Subclass Cat:
 Cat is another subclass that extends the Animal class, meaning it also
inherits the eat() method from Animal.
 Cat has its own unique method, meow(), which prints "The cat meows.".
Main Class:
 In the main method, objects of both Dog and Cat are created.
 The Dog object (myDog) can call both the eat() method (inherited from
Animal) and the bark() method (unique to Dog).
 The Cat object (myCat) can call both the eat() method (inherited from
Animal) and the meow() method (unique to Cat).
 Common Inheritance: Both Dog and Cat inherit the eat()
method from the Animal class. This shows the common behavior
shared across different animal types.

 Unique Behaviors: While they share the eat() method, Dog

has its unique bark() method, and Cat has its unique
meow() method. This illustrates how each subclass can have its
own behaviors while still sharing some functionality with other
subclasses.

This code is an example of hierarchical inheritance, where a common

superclass (Animal) is inherited by multiple subclasses (Dog and
Cat). Each subclass inherits the eat() method from Animal but also
has its own specific behavior (barking for Dog and meowing for
Cat). This allows for code reuse (inheriting the eat() method) while
also enabling the creation of specialized subclasses.
 4. Multilevel Inheritance
class Animal {
void eat() {
System.out.println("This animal eats food.");
} }
class Mammal extends Animal {
void breathe() {
System.out.println("This mammal breathes air.");
} }
class Dog extends Mammal {
void bark() {
System.out.println("The dog barks.");
} }
public class Main {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Dog myDog = new Dog();
myDog.eat();
myDog.breathe();
myDog.bark();
} }
Superclass Animal:
 This is the top-level class in the inheritance hierarchy.
 It has a method eat() that prints "This animal eats food.".
Subclass Mammal:
 Mammal extends Animal, meaning it inherits the eat() method from the
Animal class.
 It adds its own method breathe() that prints "This mammal breathes air.".
Subclass Dog:
 Dog extends Mammal, meaning it inherits both the eat() method from
Animal and the breathe() method from Mammal.
 It also adds its own method bark() that prints "The dog barks.".
Main Class:
 In the main method, an object of the Dog class (myDog) is created.
 The Dog object can call all three methods: eat() (inherited from Animal),
breathe() (inherited from Mammal), and bark() (defined in Dog).
 Multilevel Inheritance in Action:
 Inheritance Chain:
 The Dog class inherits from Mammal, and Mammal inherits from
Animal.
 This forms a chain of inheritance: Animal → Mammal → Dog.

 Method Inheritance:
 The Dog class inherits the eat() method from Animal and the
breathe() method from Mammal, in addition to having its own bark()
method.
 This means that the Dog object (myDog) can use methods from all
the classes in the inheritance chain.
 Benefits of Inheritance
 Reusability: Inheritance allows the reuse of existing code,
reducing redundancy.
 Extensibility: It is easy to add new features or modify existing
behavior by extending a class.
 Modularity: Enhances code organization by allowing a clear
hierarchical structure.
 Polymorphism: Inheritance allows the implementation of
polymorphism, making the code more flexible and reusable.
 Costs of Inheritance
 Complexity: Deep inheritance hierarchies can make code more
complex and harder to understand.
 Tight Coupling: Subclasses are tightly coupled to their superclass,
which can make changes in the superclass affect the subclass.
 Fragility: Over-reliance on inheritance can lead to fragile base class
problems, where changes to the base class can inadvertently break
the subclasses.
 Overhead: Inheritance can introduce unnecessary overhead if not
used appropriately, especially if subclasses inherit methods or
properties they do not need.
When to Use Inheritance
 IS-A Relationship: Inheritance is best used when there is a
clear IS-A relationship between the superclass and subclass.
For example, a Dog IS-A Animal.
 Code Reusability: When you want to reuse existing code
and extend its functionality.
 Polymorphism:When you need polymorphic behavior,
where a single interface can represent multiple underlying
forms (classes).
 When to Avoid Inheritance
 HAS-A Relationship: If the relationship between classes is
more of a HAS-A relationship, composition (where one class
contains objects of another class) may be a better approach.
 Unnecessary Overriding: If the subclass does not need to
override or extend the functionality of the superclass
significantly, inheritance might not be the right tool.
 Tight Coupling: If there is a risk of tight coupling between
the superclass and subclass, consider using interfaces or
composition.
 Polymorphism
Polymorphism allows objects of different classes to be treated as
objects of a common superclass.
The word "polymorphism" comes from the Greek words "poly,"
meaning many, and "morph," meaning form, thus referring to
the ability to take on multiple forms.
It enables a single function, method, or operator to work in
different ways depending on the context.
 Types of Polymorphism
Polymorphism in OOP can be broadly categorized into two types:

 Compile-Time (Static) Polymorphism:

 Achieved through method overloading and operator overloading.
 The decision of which method to invoke is made at compile
time.

 Run-Time (Dynamic) Polymorphism:

 Achieved through method overriding.
 The decision of which method to invoke is made at runtime
based on the object being referred to.
 1. Compile-Time (Static) Polymorphism

Method Overloading: overloading allows multiple methods in

the same class to have the same name but with different
parameters (different number, type, or both).
The compiler determines which method to call based on the
method signature (name and parameter list).
Operator Overloading (Not supported in Java): In some
languages like C++, operators can be overloaded to perform
different operations based on the context. This allows operators
like +, -, etc., to be used for different data types.
 Method Overloading
class Calculator {
int add(int a, int b) {
return a + b; // Overloaded method with two integer parameters
}
int add(int a, int b, int c) {
return a + b + c; // Overloaded method with three integer parameters
}
double add(double a, double b) {
return a + b; // Overloaded method with two double parameters
}}
public class Main {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Calculator calc = new Calculator();
System.out.println(calc.add(10, 20)); // Calls the method with two integers
System.out.println(calc.add(10, 20, 30)); // Calls the method with three integers
System.out.println(calc.add(10.5, 20.5)); // Calls the method with two doubles
}}
 Operator Overloading – Not Supported in Java
class Complex {
private:
float real;
float imag;
public:
Complex() : real(0), imag(0) {}
Complex(float r, float i) : real(r), imag(i) {}
// Overloading the + operator
Complex operator + (const Complex& c) {
Complex temp;
temp.real = real + c.real;
temp.imag = imag + c.imag;
return temp;
}
void display() {
std::cout << real << " + " << imag << "i" << std::endl;
} };
int main() {
Complex c1(3.3, 4.4);
Complex c2(1.1, 2.2);
Complex c3 = c1 + c2; // Calls the overloaded + operator
c3.display();
return 0;
}
 2. Run-Time (Dynamic) Polymorphism
Method Overriding: Method overriding occurs when a subclass
provides a specific implementation for a method that is already
defined in its superclass.
The overridden method in the subclass has the same name,
return type, and parameters as the method in the
superclass.
At runtime, the method that gets invoked depends on the actual
object type, not the reference type.
 Method Overriding
class Animal {
void sound() {
System.out.println("This is a generic animal sound.");
} }
class Dog extends Animal {
@Override
void sound() {
System.out.println("The dog barks.");
}}
class Cat extends Animal {
@Override
void sound() {
System.out.println("The cat meows.");
}}
public class Main {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Animal myAnimal = new Animal();
Animal myDog = new Dog();
Animal myCat = new Cat();
myAnimal.sound(); // Output: This is a generic animal sound.
myDog.sound(); // Output: The dog barks.
myCat.sound(); // Output: The cat meows.
} }
 Advantages of Polymorphism
 Code Reusability: Polymorphism allows you to write more generic
and reusable code. For example, you can create a single method that
works with objects of different types, making the code more flexible.
 Maintainability: Polymorphism makes it easier to maintain and
extend the code. If a new subclass is added, the existing code can handle
it without modification as long as it adheres to the expected interface or
superclass.
 Extensibility: New functionality can be added with minimal changes
to existing code. New classes can be introduced that override or
implement methods, and the polymorphic behavior will naturally
extend to these new classes.
 Loose Coupling: Polymorphism promotes loose coupling by allowing
objects to interact with each other through common interfaces or base
classes, without needing to know their specific types.
 Disadvantages of Polymorphism
 Complexity: Polymorphism can add complexity to the code,
especially when dealing with a large hierarchy of classes and
methods. Understanding the flow of execution might require
more effort.
 Performance Overhead: Dynamic polymorphism (method
overriding) can introduce a slight performance overhead because
method resolution is done at runtime.
 Difficulty in Debugging: Polymorphism can make debugging
more challenging, especially in complex class hierarchies, as the
actual method being invoked might not be immediately apparent.
 Potential for Misuse: Overusing polymorphism, particularly
without a clear understanding of the design, can lead to code that
is difficult to follow and maintain.
Polymorphism in Different Programming
Languages
 Java:
 Polymorphism in Java is typically achieved through method overriding (dynamic
polymorphism) and method overloading (static polymorphism). Java also uses
interfaces to implement polymorphism.
 C++:
 In C++, polymorphism is achieved through both compile-time (function
overloading, operator overloading) and run-time polymorphism (virtual
functions). C++ also supports multiple inheritance, which can lead to more
complex polymorphic behaviors.
 Python:
 Python supports polymorphism naturally because it is a dynamically typed
language. Methods can be overridden in subclasses, and functions can operate on
objects of different types without the need for explicit type definitions.
 C#:
 C# supports polymorphism through method overloading and overriding, as well
as through interfaces and abstract classes. C# uses the override keyword to
explicitly override methods in a subclass.
 Abstraction
Abstraction refers to the concept of hiding the internal
details and complexities of an object and only
exposing the essential features and functionalities that are
relevant to the outside world.
In other words, abstraction allows you to focus on what an
object does instead of how it does it.
Abstraction focuses on exposing only the essential attributes
and behaviors (methods) of an object while concealing the
implementation details. This helps in reducing complexity
and increases the usability of the code.
Abstract Classes and Interfaces: In Java, abstraction is primarily
achieved using abstract classes and interfaces.
 Abstract Class: A class that cannot be instantiated on its own
and can contain both abstract methods (without a body) and
concrete methods (with a body).
 Interface: A completely abstract class that contains only abstract
methods (prior to Java 8). In Java 8 and later, interfaces can also
contain default and static methods with implementation.

Levels of Abstraction: Abstraction in software design occurs at

different levels:
 High-Level Abstraction: Provides a general view, focusing on what
the system should do, such as through interfaces.
 Low-Level Abstraction: Provides detailed implementation, such as
through concrete classes that implement an interface or extend an
abstract class.
 Abstract Class
abstract class Vehicle {
abstract void start(); // Abstract method (no implementation)
void stop() // Concrete method with implementation
{
System.out.println("Vehicle stopped.");
}}
class Car extends Vehicle {
// Providing implementation for the abstract method @Override
void start() {
System.out.println("Car started.");
}}
public class Main {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Car myCar = new Car();
myCar.start(); // Output: Car started.
myCar.stop(); // Output: Vehicle stopped.
}}
 Interfaces
interface Drivable {
void start();
void stop();
}
class Car implements Drivable {
@Override
public void start() {
System.out.println("Car started.");
}
@Override
public void stop() {
System.out.println("Car stopped.");
}}
public class Main {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Drivable myCar = new Car();
myCar.start(); // Output: Car started.
myCar.stop(); // Output: Car stopped.
} }
 Advantages of Abstraction
 Improved Code Manageability: Abstraction helps manage complexity
by allowing developers to work with high-level interfaces without worrying
about the underlying details. This makes the code easier to understand,
maintain, and modify.
 Reusability: By using interfaces and abstract classes, common behavior can
be defined in a single place and reused across multiple classes, reducing code
duplication and improving maintainability.
 Encapsulation: Abstraction is closely related to encapsulation. By hiding
the implementation details, abstraction ensures that the internal workings of
a class or method are not exposed, leading to better encapsulation.
 Flexibility: Abstraction allows for greater flexibility in code design. By
defining interfaces or abstract classes, developers can create systems where
the actual implementation can vary, making the code more adaptable to
changes.
 Loose Coupling: Abstraction promotes loose coupling between
components in a system. Clients of an abstract class or interface do not need
to know about the specific implementation details, making the system more
modular and easier to change or extend.
 Disadvantages of Abstraction
 Increased Complexity in Design: While abstraction simplifies the
use of objects, it can add complexity to the design of a system.
Designing good abstractions requires careful planning and a deep
understanding of the problem domain.
 Performance Overhead: Abstraction can introduce a performance
overhead, especially when excessive layers of abstraction are used. The
additional indirection caused by abstract methods and interfaces might
lead to slower performance.
 Learning Curve: For beginners, understanding and implementing
abstraction can be challenging. Grasping the concepts of abstract
classes, interfaces, and how they interact in a complex system requires
a solid understanding of OOP principles.
 Potential for Over-Engineering: Overuse of abstraction can lead
to over-engineering, where the system becomes too complex and
difficult to maintain. Striking the right balance between abstraction and
simplicity is essential.
 Encapsulation
Encapsulation refers to the bundling of data (attributes)
and methods (functions or behaviors) that operate on
the data into a single unit or class.
Encapsulation also involves restricting access to certain
components of an object, which is a way of hiding the
internal implementation details and protecting the integrity
of the data.
 Key Concepts of Encapsulation
 Data Hiding: Encapsulation allows you to hide the internal state of an object and only
expose a controlled interface to the outside world. This is typically done using access
modifiers (private, protected, public) to control the visibility of class members.
 Private Members: These can only be accessed within the same class.
 Protected Members: These can be accessed within the same class, subclasses, and
sometimes within the same package (in languages like Java).
 Public Members:These can be accessed from anywhere in the program.

 Accessors (Getters) and Mutators (Setters): Instead of directly accessing the fields
of a class, encapsulation provides methods (getters and setters) to read or modify the
values of private variables. This ensures that any modification of the data can be
controlled and validated.

 Encapsulation vs. Abstraction: Encapsulation is often confused with abstraction, but

they are distinct concepts.
 Encapsulation deals with bundling data and methods that manipulate the data together
and restricting access to the inner workings of the class.
 Abstraction focuses on hiding the complexity by exposing only the necessary parts of an
object, often through interfaces or abstract classes.
 Encapsulation is about "how" to restrict access to certain parts of an
object, while abstraction is about "what" details to hide from the user.
Advantages of Encapsulation

 Control over Data:

 By making fields private and providing controlled access
through getters and setters, encapsulation allows for validation,
modification, or even transformation of data before it's assigned
or returned. This can prevent invalid data from corrupting the
object's state.
 Improved Code Maintainability:
 Encapsulation makes the code more maintainable by
decoupling the internal implementation from the external
interface. If the internal implementation changes, the
external interface (methods) can remain the same, thus not
affecting other parts of the program.
 Increased Flexibility:
 Encapsulation provides flexibility in how data is managed within a class.
You can change the internal implementation without changing how the
user interacts with the object.
 For instance, if you need to change how the data is stored (e.g., changing
from one data structure to another), encapsulation allows you to do this
without altering external code that depends on the class.
 Security:
 Encapsulation protects the internal state of an object from unintended
or harmful interference. By restricting direct access to the fields, you
ensure that the object's state remains consistent and valid throughout its
lifecycle.
 It can prevent unauthorized parts of the program from modifying the
state of the object in unexpected ways.
 Encapsulation vs. Inheritance:
 Encapsulation is about hiding the internal details of an object and protecting
its state.
 Inheritance is about creating new classes that are based on existing classes,
inheriting their attributes and behaviors.
 Encapsulation vs. Polymorphism:
 Encapsulation controls how data is accessed and modified.
 Polymorphism allows objects of different classes to be treated as objects of a
common superclass, typically through method overriding and interfaces.
 Encapsulation vs. Abstraction:
 Encapsulation is more about the "how" of hiding data within a class, ensuring
controlled access.
 Abstraction focuses on the "what" by providing a simplified interface, hiding
complex implementation details.
 Example
class BankAccount {
private double balance;
public void deposit(double amount) {
if (amount > 0) {
balance += amount;
} }
public void withdraw(double amount) {
if (amount > 0 && amount <= balance) {
balance -= amount;
} }
public double getBalance() {
return balance;
}}
public class Main {
public static void main(String[] args) {
BankAccount account = new BankAccount();
account.deposit(1000);
account.withdraw(500);
System.out.println("Balance: " + account.getBalance());
} }
 Encapsulation ensures that the internal state of the
BankAccount (the balance field) is not directly exposed to the
outside world.
 Controlled Access is provided through public methods
(deposit, withdraw, getBalance), which enforce rules and logic
for interacting with the balance.
 Information Hiding allows changes to the internal
implementation of BankAccount without affecting external code
that relies on the class, promoting maintainability and flexibility.
 This encapsulation ensures that the BankAccount class is robust,
with a clear and controlled way to interact with its data,
minimizing the risk of errors or inconsistencies in how the
balance is managed.