c) From (ai) and (aii) we discover that the mean of the sample means, both for sampling with

replacement and without replacement, are equal to the population mean. Therefore, we say
that the sample mean is an unbiased estimator of the population mean.

d) i. The mean sample variance for SRSWr is given by

σ2 0.0325
σ y2 = V ( y ) = = = 0.01625
n 2

ii. The mean sample variance for SRSWor is given by

( N − n) S 2
V (y) =
N n
Where
n

∑( y − y)
2
i
S2 = i =1

n −1

See column 5 of table (aii).

2.2 Non-Random
Random Sampling (non probability)
Non probability sampling can be categorized into the following:

Judgement or Purposive
Sampling

Haphazard Sampling

Quota Sampling

Figure 2.4: Non Probability Sampling categories

38
(i) Judgment or Purposive Sampling
In this type of non-random sampling experts pick units they judge to be representative of the
population. E.g. a typical town may be picked to represent an urban population or a village
chosen to represent a rural population.
Since experts differ in their judgments, different experts may choose different units, which to
them may appear to be representative of the population. Confidence is, therefore, not placed
on the results from judgment sampling since there is no objective method for preferring one
judgment to another.

There is always a danger of making systematic errors of judgment. In judgment sampling, a

sampler may decide to choose villages closest to him or those having a particular
characteristic. Finally, accurate measure of sample variability cannot be obtained with
judgment sampling.

(ii) Haphazard Sampling: In haphazard sampling, units are taken into the sample as
they come along or make themselves available. In a hospital survey on the characteristics of
patients suffering from a particular disease, the patients are taken into the sample in the order
they report to the hospital and volunteer to be part of the study. This sampling method lacks
representativeness of the population to be studied.

(iii) Quota Sampling: This is in a way similar to purposive sampling. In quota sampling,
specified number of sample units in each specified group, based on say, gender, age, social
class, etc. is assigned to an enumerator. The enumerator then selects the required
representative number of individuals to be in the sample within each quota (group).

Quota sampling is used extensively in opinion surveys and in market research. The
disadvantage of quota sampling is that it may not be possible for the interviewer to fill the
quota with representative units. Another disadvantage is that sampling variability cannot be
calculated with quota sampling.

The advantage of quota sampling is that it is easy to apply and avoids the problem of not-at-
homes and call-backs. It is useful in obtaining quickly the people’s reaction to current issues.
Quota sampling can be used even when there is no suitable list of population units.

39
In-Text Question
The disadvantage of quota sampling is that it may not be possible for the interviewer to fill
the quota with representative units. True or False

In-Text Answer
True

Summary for Study Session 2

In study session 2, you have learnt that:

1. In equal probability sampling, every element in the population has the same non-
zero probability of being included in the sample.
2. Two probability sampling techniques used for selecting a specified number of units
from a population such that every unit has an equal chance of being in the sample are:
3. Simple random sampling is the simplest probability sampling procedure. In this
method of selecting a sample of the population units, every sample of a fixed size is
given an equal chance to be selected.
4. In haphazard sampling, units are taken into the sample as they come along or make
themselves available. In a hospital survey on the characteristics of patients suffering
from a particular disease, the patients are taken into the sample in the order they
report to the hospital and volunteer to be part of the study. This sampling method
lacks representativeness of the population to be studied.
5. Quota sampling is used extensively in opinion surveys and in market research. The
disadvantage of quota sampling is that it may not be possible for the interviewer to fill
the quota with representative units. Another disadvantage is that sampling variability
cannot be calculated with quota sampling.

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 2

Now that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well you have achieved
its Learning outcomes by answering the following questions. You can check your answers
with the Notes on the Self-Assessment questions at the end of this Module.

40
SAQ 2.1
Define in equal probability sampling

SAQ 2.2
Explain quota sampling

Notes on SAQ
SAQ 2.1
In equal probability sampling, every element in the population has the same non-zero
probability of being included in the sample.

SAQ 2.2
Quota Sampling: This is in a way similar to purposive sampling. In quota sampling,
specified number of sample units in each specified group, based on say, gender, age, social
class, etc. is assigned to an enumerator.

References
Cochran, W.G, (1977); Sampling Techniques third edition, New York: John Wiley & Sons
Daroga Singh and Chaudhary F.S, (1986); Theory and Analysis of Sample Survey Design,
New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Limited
Des Raj and Promod Chandhok (1998); Sample Survey Theory, New Delhi: Narosa
Publishing House
Kish L. (1965); Survey Sampling, New York: John Wiley & Sons
Okafor F.C (2002); Sampling Survey Theory with Applications, Nsukka: Afro-Orbis
Publishers
Mukhopadhyay P. (2005): Theory and Methods of Survey Sampling, New Delhi: Prentice-
Hall of India Private Limited

41