2nd Internal Computer Network Notes
2nd Internal Computer Network Notes
Transmission Medias
• It refers to physical pathways through which data is transmitted from one
device to another.
• These pathways can be wired or wireless.
• The choice of medium depends on factors like distance & speed etc.
✓Cladding is a thin layer that helps transmit data through the fiber.
Magnetic Media
➢ These devices rely on magnetized particles to store data, and they are
commonly used for both data storage in computing and for audio/video
recording.
➢ The most common ways of transporting data from one computer to
another is to write on to magnetic tape or removable media such as CD,
DVD, HDD and so on ..
➢ Physically transport the disk to the destination machine and read them
back again.
Advantages:
• Only one wire is required
• Reduction is cost due to less number of conductor wire
• It is the most used method for long distance data transfers
Disadvantages:
• Since there is only one line of transmission therefore the speed of
transmission is quite slow
• If we have to increase the speed of data transfer then it is necessary to
increase the clock frequency. But there ia a limit of clock frequency.
Serial transmission has two categories:
1. Synchronous data transmission
2. Asynchronous data transmission
1. Synchronous data transmission
- In Synchronous Transmission, data is sent in the form of blocks or
frames.
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Advantage:
- It offers fast data communication between devices compare to serial
interface.
Disadvantages:
- It supports short distance communication between devices. This is due
to crosstalk between the parallel lines.
- It uses more wires compare to serial interface and hence it is costly and
a bit complex to implement.
Periodic Signal
Periodic Signals
- Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or composite.
- A simple periodic analog signal,
a sine wave, cannot be decomposed into simpler signals.
- A composite periodic analog signal
- is composed of multiple sine waves.
- Data communication uses periodic signals due to the requirement of
lesser bandwidth.
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Wavelength
- It combines frequency with the speed of propagation in a medium.
- It’s a distance travelled by a signal in 1 cycle.
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Composite Signals:
- A "composite signal" in a computer network refers to a signal created by
combining multiple simpler signals, typically consisting of different
frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.
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TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
- Signals travel through media that are not perfect.
- This causes signal impairment (signal changes during transmission).
- The received signal differs from the sent signal.
- Main causes of impairment:
• Attenuation – Signal weakens.
• Distortion – Signal shape changes.
• Noise – Unwanted signals interfere.
Attenuation
- Attenuation is a loss of energy.
- When a signal, simple or composite, travels through a medium, it loses
some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the medium.
- For ex: when a wire carries electric signals, it gets warm or hot, after a
while. This is due to the electrical energy in the signal converted to heat.
- To compensate the lost energy, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal.
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Distortion
- Distortion occurs in composite signals and it is the change in its form or
shape.
- Due to composite signals, each signal component has its own propagation
speed in the medium and have its own delay in arriving at the receiver.
- Signal components at the receiver have phase difference from what they
had at the sender.
Noise
- Noise is caused due to impairment.
- Addition of external factors in signals.
- Noise can disturb data.
- Two wires can generate voltage noise which affects data
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Note:
High power consumption due to continuous +ve voltage for binary 1.
Advantages:
– Simplicity in implementation.
Disadvantages:
- Presence of DC level (indicated by signal line at 0 Hz).
- Long string of zeros causes loss of synchronisation.
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NRZ-I (NRZ-Invert):
- Signal is inverted if 1 is encountered, i.e., the change or lack of change
in the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit.
- If there is no change, the bit is 0; if there is a change, the bit is 1.
0 +ve , 1 -ve
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Summary
➢ In NRZ-L the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit.
➢ In NRZ-I the inversion or the lack of inversion determines the value of the
bit.
➢ The main problem with NRZ encoding occurs when the sender and
receiver clocks are not synchronized.
➢ NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have a DC component problem.
Return to Zero (RZ) Encoding
- Uses three voltage levels: +, - and 0, but only + and - represent data bits.
- In RZ, the signal changes not between bits but during the bit.
- The signal goes to 0 in the middle of each bit & remains there until the
beginning of the next bit.
Disadvantages:
It requires two signal changes to encode a bit.
Here we used 0 -ve voltage and 1 +ve Voltage in the diagram below
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Manchester Encoding
- The idea of RZ (transition at the middle of the bit) and the idea of NRZ-
L are combined into the Manchester scheme.
- In Manchester encoding , the duration of the bit is divided into two
halves.
- The voltage remains at one level during the first half and moves to the
other level during the second half.
1 is +ve in 1st half and -ve in 2nd half.
0 is -ve in 1st half and +ve in 2nd half.
Note:
In Manchester and differential Manchester encoding, the transition
at the middle of the bit is used for synchronization.
Bipolar Encoding
- In bipolar encoding, we use three levels: positive, zero, and negative.
- Each of all three levels represents a bit.
Example:
Bipolar AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion):
- 0 Voltage always represents binary 0
- Binary 1s are represented by alternating + and –
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UNIT 4
Switching
Circuit Switching, Packet Switching, Message Switching.
Data security:
Error detection and correction - Types of errors, detection, Checksum, single
bit error correction, Hamming Distance , Hamming code, Burst error
correction.