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Faculty of
Computer and
Information
Sciences
Information Technology
Department
Computer Networks Fundamentals
IT 221 T

Lecture 2: Network Models

Chapter 2
Topics to be covered:

 Network Models (System Architecture)

• Concept of protocol layering
• Two scenarios
• Principles of protocol layering
• TCP/IP protocol suite
• OSI model

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2.1 PROTOCOL LAYERING

In data communication and networking, a protocol defines the rules

that both the sender and receiver and all intermediate devices need to
follow to be able to communicate effectively.

-Simple Communications: only one simple protocol (face to face).

-Complex Communications: divide the task between different layers.

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2.1 PROTOCOL LAYERING

2.1.1 SCENARIOS

First Scenario (Simple Communications):

Communication between Maria and Ann takes place in one layer, face to face, in the same language

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 2.1 PROTOCOL LAYERING

Second Scenario (Complex Communications):

At maria side At Ann’s side,

The third layer machine creates the plaintext (a letter in English), the first layer The machine takes out the cipher- text from the
which is passed to the second layer machine envelope and delivers it to the second layer machine
The second layer machine takes the plaintext, encrypts it, The second layer machine decrypts the message, creates the
and creates the ciphertext plaintext
The first layer machine, takes the ciphertext, puts it in an , and passes the plaintext to the third-layer machine
envelope, The third layer machine takes the plaintext
adds the sender and receiver addresses, and mails it.
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2.1 PROTOCOL LAYERING

A layer (module): is a black box with inputs and outputs without concerns
about the conversion of inputs to outputs.
 A layer needs to be able to receive a set of services from the lower
layer and to give the services to the upper layer.

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2.1 PROTOCOL LAYERING

Advantages of protocol layering:

- It allows to separate the services from the implementation.

- Communication does not always use only two end systems; there are
intermediate systems that need only some layers, but not all layers.

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 2.1 PROTOCOL LAYERING

2.1.2 PRINCIPLES OF PROTOCOL LAYERING

First Principle:
Each layer is able to perform two opposite tasks, one in each direction.
Example:

 3rd layer task is to talk (in one direction) and listen (in other
direction),
 2nd layer task encrypt (in one direction) and decrypt (in other
direction),
 1st layer send and receive email.

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2.1 PROTOCOL LAYERING

2.1.2 PRINCIPLES OF PROTOCOL LAYERING

Second Principle
Two objects under each layer at both sites should be identical.

Example:

 Objects under layer 3: Plain text

 Objects under layer 2: Cipher text
 Objects under layer 1: a piece of mail

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2.1 PROTOCOL LAYERING

2.1.1 LOGICAL CONNECTIONS

logical connection :means that we

have layer-to-layer communication.
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2.2 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

 TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a set of

protocols organized in different layers used in the Internet today.
 It is a hierarchal protocol.
 The term hierarchical means that each upper level protocol is
supported by the services provided by one or more lower level
protocols.
 The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the
OSI model.
 The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers:
host-to-network, internet, transport, and application.
 When TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP protocol
suite is made of five layers: physical, data link, network, transport, and
application.

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2.2 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

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2.2 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

2.2.1 LAYERED ARCHITECTURE

a router is always involved in one network layer,

a link-layer switch is involved only in one data-link and one physical layer.

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2.2 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

2.2.2 LAYERS IN THE TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

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2.2 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

2.2.2 LAYERS IN THE TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

 Logical connections make it easier to think about the duty of each

layer.
 The duty of the application, transport, and network layers is end-
to-end.
 Where the duty of the data link and physical layers is hop-to-hop,
in which a hop is a host or router.

 Logical connections may be though of as data unit created at each

layer.
the domain of duty of the top three layers is the internet,
and the domain of duty of the two lower layers is the link.

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2.2 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

2.2.2 LAYERS IN THE TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

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 2.2 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

2.2.3 DESCRIPTION OF EACH LAYER

Physical Layer
 Physical layer is responsible for carrying individual bits in a frame across the link.
 Physical layer is the lowest level in TCP/IP protocol suite.
 The communication in the physical layer is still logical. A bit is the logical unit
between two physical layers in two devices.

Note: the transmission medium does not carry bits;

it carries electrical or optical signals.
Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium.
Representation of bits
Data rate
Synchronization of bits
Line configuration
Physical topology
Transmission mode

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2.2 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

2.2.3 DESCRIPTION OF EACH LAYER

Data-link Layer
 Data-link layer is responsible for taking the datagram and moving it across the
link.
 Data-link layer takes a datagram and encapsulates it in a packet called a frame.
 Link layer address.
 Data-link layer is responsible for hop-to-hop delivery.

There are other responsibilities of data link layer include:

1-Framing
2-Physical addressing
3-Flow control
4-Error control
5- Access control

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2.2 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

2.2.3 DESCRIPTION OF EACH LAYER

Network Layer
 Network layer is responsible for creating a connection between source computer
and the destination computer.
 Network layer is responsible for host-to-host communication and routing the
packet through possible routes.
 Routers in the path are responsible for choosing the best route for each packet.

 Why we need the Network layer ?

Other responsibilities of network layer include:

Logical addressing
Routing

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2.2 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

2.2.3 DESCRIPTION OF EACH LAYER

Network Layer
 IP (Internet Protocol) is responsible for routing a packet from its source
to its destination.
 IP is a connectionless protocol.
 A routing protocol creates forwarding tables for routers to help them in
the routing process.

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2.2 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

2.2.3 DESCRIPTION OF EACH LAYER

Network Layer
 The Network layer has some protocols that help IP in its delivery and
routing tasks.

• The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP).

• The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP).
• The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).
• The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP).

*IP is a connectionless protocol that provides no flow control, no error control, and
no congestion control services.
The net- work layer also includes unicast (one-to-one) and multicast (one-to-many)
routing pro- tocols.

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2.2 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

2.2.3 DESCRIPTION OF EACH LAYER

Transport Layer
 The Transport layer is responsible for giving services to the application
layer.
 We have more than one protocol in the Transport layer, which means that
each application programs can use the protocol that best matches its
requirement.

Other responsibilities of transport layer:

1-Service-point addressing
2-Segmentation and reassembly
3-Connection control
4-Flow control
5-Error control

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2.2 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

2.2.3 DESCRIPTION OF EACH LAYER

Transport Layer Protocols:

 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), is a connection-oriented protocol
that first establishes a logical connection.
• TCP provides flow control, error control, and congestion control.

 User Datagram Protocol (UDP), is a connectionless protocol that transmits

user datagrams without first creating a logical connection.
• In UDP, each user datagram is independent entity.
• UDP is a simple protocol that does not provide flow control, error
control, or congestion control.

 Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP), is a new protocol.

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UDP TCP
Advantages Advantage
Less overhead in the connection
established.
Lower delay in the connection Connection oriented; that first establishes
established. a logical connection between transport
Disadvantages layers at two hosts before transferring
1-It is a connectionless protocol that data.
transmits user datagrams without first Provides flow control, error control, and
creating a logical connection. congestion control.
2-No flow control ,no error control Disadvantage
Connection overhead
Connection Delay

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2.2 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

2.2.3 DESCRIPTION OF EACH LAYER

Application Layer
 Communication at the Application layer is between two processes (two
programs running at this layer).
 Process-to-process communication is the duty of the Application layer.
 The two Application layers exchange messages between each other as
though there were a bridge between two layers.

Application Responsibility
Network virtual terminal
File transfer, access, and management
Mail services
Directory services

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2.2 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

2.2.3 DESCRIPTION OF EACH LAYER

Application Layer Protocols:

• The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
• The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).
• The File Transfer Protocol (FTP).
• The Terminal Network (TELNET).
• The Secure Shell (SSH).
• The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP).
• The Domain Name System (DNS).

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2.2 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

2.2.4 ENCAPSULATION AND DECAPSULATION

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EXPLAIN Encapsulation at the Source Host?

At the source, we have only encapsulation.

1.At the application layer, The message is passed to the transport layer.
2.The transport layer It adds the transport layer header to the payload,
3.The network layer takes the transport-layer packet as data or payload and adds its own header
to the payload. The result is the network-layer packet, called a datagram.
4.The data-link layer takes the network-layer packet as data or payload and adds its own header,
The result is the link-layer packet, which is called a frame.

Explain Decapsulation at the Destination Host

At the destination host, each layer only decapsulates the packet received, and delivers the payload to the
next-higher layer protocol until the message reaches the application layer.
Decapsulation and Encapsulation at the Router
*At the router, we have both decapsulation and encapsulation because the router is con- nected
to two or more links.

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2.2 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

2.2.5 ADDRESSING

 Another concept related to protocol layering in the Internet, addressing.

 Any communication that involves two parties needs two addresses: source
address and destination address.

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2.2 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

2.2.5 ADDRESSING

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Physical adress (link layer
Logical address Port address Specific address or names
address)

process is called a port

The Physical IP addresses are necessary
address.
address, also known as for universal
Port numbers are local
the MAC or link address communications that are Some applications have
addresses that distinguish
Is the address of a node independent of physical user-friendly addresses
between several programs
as defined by its LAN or network. called names to define the
running at the same time.
WAN No two host address on site that provides services
identifies a process on a
It is included in the frame the internet can have the Examples:
host
used by data link layer same IP address 1. e-mail addresses
(Header) Ethernet uses 6- A network-layer address ( A @yahoo.com) to define
bytes (48-bits) physical uniquely defines the the recipient of an e-mail
address that imprinted on connection of a device to
the NIC (Network Internet the Internet
A port address in
card) IP addresses 32-bit
TCP/ IP is 16 bits in length

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2.2 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

2.2.6 MULTIPLEXING AND DEMULTIPLEXING

a protocol at a layer can encapsulate a packet from several next-higher

layer protocols (one at a time); demultiplexing means that a protocol can
decapsulate and deliver a packet to several next-higher layer protocols

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2.3 THE OSI MODEL

Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a

multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international
standards. An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications
is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first introduced in the
late 1970s.

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2.3 THE OSI MODEL

 What is the purpose of the OSI model ?

 The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and
designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable.

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 2.3 THE OSI MODEL

 The OSI model, consists of seven separate but related layers.

The application layer in

TCP/ IP is equivalent to
the combined session,
presentation, and
application layers in the
OSI model

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2.3 THE OSI MODEL

Session Layer in the OSI model

 The Session layer is responsible for dialog (connection) control, and

responsible for close of sessions Synchronization.

responsibilities
•Dialog control
•Synchronization

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2.3 THE OSI MODEL

Presentation Layer in the OSI model

 The presentation layer is concerned with syntax and semantics

of information transmitted (how information is formatted);
responsible for translation, compression, and encryption

responsibilities of presentation layer:

1-Translation
2-Encryption
3-Compression

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2.3 THE OSI MODEL

2.3.1 OSI VERSUS TCP/IP

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2.3 THE OSI MODEL

2.3.2 LACK OF OSI MODEL’S SUCCESS

 First, OSI model was completed when TCP/IP was fully in place;
changing it would cost a lot.
 Second, some layers in OSI model were never fully defined.
 Third, OSI did not show a high enough level of performance to
switch from TCP/IP protocol suite to the OSI model.

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 Reference

Behrouz A. Forouzan” Data communications and

Networking , 5th Ed

Chapter 2
THANK YOU