Karnaugh map

A Karnaugh map (KM or K-map) is a diagram that can be used to simplify a Boolean
algebra expression. Maurice Karnaugh introduced the technique in 1953[1][2] as a
refinement of Edward W. Veitch's 1952 Veitch chart,[3][4] which itself was a
rediscovery of Allan Marquand's 1881 logical diagram[5][6] or Marquand diagram.[4]
They are also known as Marquand–Veitch diagrams,[4] Karnaugh–Veitch (KV) maps,
and (rarely) Svoboda charts.[7] An early advance in the history of formal logic
methodology, Karnaugh maps remain relevant in the digital age, especially in the
fields of logical circuit design and digital engineering.[4]

An example Karnaugh map.

Definition
A Karnaugh map reduces the need for extensive calculations by taking advantage of
humans' pattern-recognition capability.[1] It also permits the rapid identification and
elimination of potential race conditions.

The required Boolean results are transferred from a truth table onto a two-
dimensional grid where, in Karnaugh maps, the cells are ordered in Gray code,[8][4] and
each cell position represents one combination of input conditions. Cells are also
known as minterms, while each cell value represents the corresponding output value
of the Boolean function. Optimal groups of 1s or 0s are identified, which represent the
terms of a canonical form of the logic in the original truth table.[9] These terms can be
used to write a minimal Boolean expression representing the required logic.

Karnaugh maps are used to simplify real-world logic requirements so that they can be
implemented using the minimal number of logic gates. A sum-of-products expression
(SOP) can always be implemented using AND gates feeding into an OR gate, and a
product-of-sums expression (POS) leads to OR gates feeding an AND gate. The POS
expression gives a complement of the function (if F is the function so its complement
will be F').[10] Karnaugh maps can also be used to simplify logic expressions in
software design. Boolean conditions, as used for example in conditional statements,
can get very complicated, which makes the code difficult to read and to maintain.
Once minimised, canonical sum-of-products and product-of-sums expressions can be
implemented directly using AND and OR logic operators.[11]

Example
Karnaugh maps are used to facilitate the simplification of Boolean algebra functions.
For example, consider the Boolean function described by the following truth table.
Truth table of a function

A B C D

0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 1 0

2 0 0 1 0 0

3 0 0 1 1 0

4 0 1 0 0 0

5 0 1 0 1 0

6 0 1 1 0 1

7 0 1 1 1 0

8 1 0 0 0 1

9 1 0 0 1 1

10 1 0 1 0 1

11 1 0 1 1 1

12 1 1 0 0 1

13 1 1 0 1 1

14 1 1 1 0 1

15 1 1 1 1 0

Following are two different notations describing the same function in unsimplified
Boolean algebra, using the Boolean variables A, B, C, D and their inverses.

where are the minterms to map

(i.e., rows that have output 1 in the
truth table).
where are the maxterms to
map (i.e., rows that have output 0 in
the truth table).

K-map drawn on a torus, and in a

plane. The dot-marked cells are
adjacent.

K-map construction. Instead of the

output values (the rightmost values in
the truth table), this diagram shows a
decimal representation of the input
ABCD (the leftmost values in the truth
table), therefore it is not a Karnaugh
map.
 In three dimensions, one can bend a
rectangle into a torus.

Construction
In the example above, the four input variables can be combined in 16 different ways,
so the truth table has 16 rows, and the Karnaugh map has 16 positions. The Karnaugh
map is therefore arranged in a 4 × 4 grid.

The row and column indices (shown across the top and down the left side of the
Karnaugh map) are ordered in Gray code rather than binary numerical order. Gray
code ensures that only one variable changes between each pair of adjacent cells.
Each cell of the completed Karnaugh map contains a binary digit representing the
function's output for that combination of inputs.

Grouping
After the Karnaugh map has been constructed, it is used to find one of the simplest
possible forms — a canonical form — for the information in the truth table. Adjacent
1s in the Karnaugh map represent opportunities to simplify the expression. The
minterms ('minimal terms') for the final expression are found by encircling groups of
1s in the map. Minterm groups must be rectangular and must have an area that is a
power of two (i.e., 1, 2, 4, 8...). Minterm rectangles should be as large as possible
without containing any 0s. Groups may overlap in order to make each one larger. The
optimal groupings in the example below are marked by the green, red and blue lines,
and the red and green groups overlap. The red group is a 2 × 2 square, the green
group is a 4 × 1 rectangle, and the overlap area is indicated in brown.

The cells are often denoted by a shorthand which describes the logical value of the
inputs that the cell covers. For example, AD would mean a cell which covers the 2x2
area where A and D are true, i.e. the cells numbered 13, 9, 15, 11 in the diagram
above. On the other hand, AD would mean the cells where A is true and D is false
(that is, D is true).

The grid is toroidally connected, which means that rectangular groups can wrap
across the edges (see picture). Cells on the extreme right are actually 'adjacent' to
those on the far left, in the sense that the corresponding input values only differ by
one bit; similarly, so are those at the very top and those at the bottom. Therefore, AD
can be a valid term—it includes cells 12 and 8 at the top, and wraps to the bottom to
include cells 10 and 14—as is BD, which includes the four corners.

Solution

Diagram showing two K-maps. The K-

map for the function f(A, B, C, D) is
shown as colored rectangles which
correspond to minterms. The brown
region is an overlap of the red 2×2
square and the green 4×1 rectangle.
The K-map for the inverse of f is
shown as gray rectangles, which
Once the Karnaugh map has been constructed and the adjacent 1s linked by
rectangular and square boxes, the algebraic minterms can be found by examining
which variables stay the same within each box.

For the red grouping:

A is the same and is equal to 1

throughout the box, therefore it
should be included in the algebraic
representation of the red minterm.
B does not maintain the same state
(it shifts from 1 to 0), and should
therefore be excluded.
C does not change. It is always 0,
so its complement, NOT-C, should
be included. Thus, C should be
included.
D changes, so it is excluded.
Thus the first minterm in the Boolean sum-of-products expression is AC.

For the green grouping, A and B maintain the same state, while C and D change. B is 0
and has to be negated before it can be included The second term is therefore AB
Note that it is acceptable that the green grouping overlaps with the red one.

In the same way, the blue grouping gives the term BCD.

The solutions of each grouping are combined: the normal form of the circuit is
.

Thus the Karnaugh map has guided a simplification of

It would also have been possible to derive this simplification by carefully applying the
axioms of Boolean algebra, but the time it takes to do that grows exponentially with
the number of terms.

Inverse
The inverse of a function is solved in the same way by grouping the 0s instead.[nb 1]

The three terms to cover the inverse are all shown with grey boxes with different
colored borders:

brown: A B
gold: A C
blue: BCD
This yields the inverse:

Through the use of De Morgan's laws, the product of sums can be determined:

Don't cares
 The value of for
ABCD = 1111 is replaced by a "don't
care". This removes the green term
completely and allows the red term to
be larger. It also allows blue inverse
term to shift and become larger

Karnaugh maps also allow easier minimizations of functions whose truth tables
include "don't care" conditions. A "don't care" condition is a combination of inputs for
which the designer doesn't care what the output is. Therefore, "don't care" conditions
can either be included in or excluded from any rectangular group, whichever makes it
larger. They are usually indicated on the map with a dash or X.

The example on the right is the same as the example above but with the value of
f(1,1,1,1) replaced by a "don't care". This allows the red term to expand all the way
down and, thus, removes the green term completely.

This yields the new minimum equation:

Note that the first term is just A, not AC. In this case, the don't care has dropped a
term (the green rectangle); simplified another (the red one); and removed the race
hazard (removing the yellow term as shown in the following section on race hazards).

The inverse case is simplified as follows:

Through the use of De Morgan's laws, the product of sums can be determined:

Race hazards

Elimination
Karnaugh maps are useful for detecting and eliminating race conditions. Race
hazards are very easy to spot using a Karnaugh map, because a race condition may
exist when moving between any pair of adjacent, but disjoint, regions circumscribed
on the map. However, because of the nature of Gray coding, adjacent has a special
definition explained above – we're in fact moving on a torus, rather than a rectangle,
wrapping around the top, bottom, and the sides.

In the example above, a potential

race condition exists when C is 1
and D is 0, A is 1, and B changes
from 1 to 0 (moving from the blue
state to the green state). For this
case, the output is defined to
remain unchanged at 1, but
because this transition is not
covered by a specific term in the
equation, a potential for a glitch (a
momentary transition of the output
to 0) exists.
There is a second potential glitch in
the same example that is more
difficult to spot: when D is 0 and A
and B are both 1, with C changing
from 1 to 0 (moving from the blue
state to the red state). In this case
 the glitch wraps around from the
top of the map to the bottom.

Race hazards are present in this

diagram.

Above diagram with consensus terms

added to avoid race hazards.

Whether glitches will actually occur depends on the physical nature of the
implementation, and whether we need to worry about it depends on the application. In
clocked logic, it is enough that the logic settles on the desired value in time to meet
the timing deadline. In our example, we are not considering clocked logic.

In our case, an additional term of would eliminate the potential race hazard,
bridging between the green and blue output states or blue and red output states: this
is shown as the yellow region (which wraps around from the bottom to the top of the
right half) in the adjacent diagram.

The term is redundant in terms of the static logic of the system, but such redundant,
or consensus terms, are often needed to assure race-free dynamic performance.

Similarly, an additional term of must be added to the inverse to eliminate another

potential race hazard. Applying De Morgan's laws creates another product of sums
expression for f, but with a new factor of .

2-variable map examples

The following are all the possible 2-variable, 2 × 2 Karnaugh maps. Listed with each is
the minterms as a function of and the race hazard free (see previous section)
minimum equation. A minterm is defined as an expression that gives the most
minimal form of expression of the mapped variables. All possible horizontal and
vertical interconnected blocks can be formed. These blocks must be of the size of the
powers of 2 (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, ...). These expressions create a minimal logical mapping
of the minimal logic variable expressions for the binary expressions to be mapped.
Here are all the blocks with one field.

A block can be continued across the bottom, top, left, or right of the chart. That can
even wrap beyond the edge of the chart for variable minimization. This is because
each logic variable corresponds to each vertical column and horizontal row. A
visualization of the k-map can be considered cylindrical. The fields at edges on the
left and right are adjacent, and the top and bottom are adjacent. K-Maps for four
variables must be depicted as a donut or torus shape. The four corners of the square
drawn by the k-map are adjacent. Still more complex maps are needed for 5 variables
and more.
Σm(0); K = 0

Σm(1); K = A′B′
Σm(2); K = AB′

Σm(3); K = A′B
Σm(4); K = AB

Σm(1,2); K = B′
Σm(1,3); K = A′

Σm(1,4); K = A′B′ + AB
Σm(2,3); K = AB′ + A′B

Σm(2,4); K = A
Σm(3,4); K = B

Σm(1,2,3); K = A' + B′
Σm(1,2,4); K = A + B′

Σm(1,3,4); K = A′ + B
 Σm(2,3,4); K = A + B

Σm(1,2,3,4); K = 1

Related graphical
methods
Related graphical minimization methods include:
Marquand diagram (1881) by Allan
Marquand (1853–1924)[5][6][4]
Veitch chart (1952) by Edward W.
Veitch (1924–2013)[3][4]
Svoboda chart (1956) by Antonín
Svoboda (1907–1980)[7]
Mahoney map (M-map, designation
numbers, 1963) by Matthew V.
Mahoney (a reflection-symmetrical
extension of Karnaugh maps for
larger numbers of inputs)
Reduced Karnaugh map (RKM)
techniques (from 1969) like
infrequent variables, map-entered
variables (MEV), variable-entered
 map (VEM) or variable-entered
Karnaugh map (VEKM) by G. W.
Schultz, Thomas E. Osborne,
Christopher R. Clare, J. Robert
Burgoon, Larry L. Dornhoff, William
I. Fletcher, Ali M. Rushdi and others
(several successive Karnaugh map
extensions based on variable
inputs for a larger numbers of
inputs)
Minterm-ring map (MRM, 1990) by
Thomas R. McCalla (a three-
dimensional extension of Karnaugh
maps for larger numbers of inputs)

See also
Algebraic normal form (ANF)
Binary decision diagram (BDD), a
data structure that is a compressed
representation of a Boolean
function
Espresso heuristic logic minimizer
List of Boolean algebra topics
Logic optimization
Punnett square (1905), a similar
diagram in biology
Quine–McCluskey algorithm
Reed–Muller expansion
Venn diagram (1880)
Zhegalkin polynomial
Notes

1. This should not be confused with

the negation of the result of the
previously found function.

References

1. Karnaugh, Maurice (November

1953) [1953-04-23, 1953-03-17].
"The Map Method for Synthesis
of Combinational Logic Circuits"
(https://web.archive.org/web/201
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hy.com/documents/The%20Ma
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2. Curtis, Herbert Allen (1962). A
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OCLC 1036797958 (https://searc
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semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:57
068910) . ISBN 978-0-44201794-
1. ark:/13960/t56d6st0q.
(viii+635 pages) (NB. This book
was reprinted by Chin Jih in
1969.)
3. Veitch, Edward Westbrook (1952-
05-03) [1952-05-02]. "A chart
method for simplifying truth
functions". Proceedings of the
1952 ACM national meeting
(Pittsburgh) on - ACM '52. New
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133. doi:10.1145/609784.609801
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(http://www2.fiit.stuba.sk/~kvasn
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5. Marquand, Allan (1881). "XXXIII:
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(http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/
abs/10.1080/147864481086271
04) . The London, Edinburgh, and
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doi:10.1080/1478644810862710
4 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F147
86448108627104) . Retrieved
2017-05-15. (NB. Quite many
secondary sources erroneously
cite this work as "A logical
diagram for n terms" or "On a
logical diagram for n terms".)
. Gardner, Martin (1958). "6.
Marquand's Machine and Others".
Logic Machines and Diagrams (ht
tps://archive.org/details/logicma
chinesdia227gard) (1 ed.). New
York, USA: McGraw-Hill Book
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7. Klir, George Jiří (May 1972).
"Reference Notations to Chapter
2". Introduction to the
Methodology of Switching
Circuits (1 ed.). Binghamton, New
York, USA: Litton Educational
Publishing, Inc. / D. van Nostrand
Company. p. 84. ISBN 0-442-
24463-0. LCCN 72-181095 (http
s://lccn.loc.gov/72-181095) .
C4463-000-3. (xvi+573+1 pages)
. Wakerly, John F. (1994). Digital
Design: Principles & Practices.
New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall.
pp. 48–49, 222. ISBN 0-13-
211459-3. (NB. The two page
sections taken together say that
K-maps are labeled with Gray
code. The first section says that
they are labeled with a code that
changes only one bit between
entries and the second section
says that such a code is called
Gray code.)
9. Belton, David (April 1998).
"Karnaugh Maps – Rules of
Simplification" (http://www.ee.sur
rey.ac.uk/Projects/Labview/mini
misation/karrules.html) .
Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20170418140519/http://w
ww.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Projects/Labv
iew/minimisation/karrules.html)
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Retrieved 2009-05-30.
10. Dodge, Nathan B. (September
2015). "Simplifying Logic Circuits
with Karnaugh Maps" (http://ww
w.utdallas.edu/~dodge/EE2310/l
ec5.pdf) (PDF). The University of
Texas at Dallas, Erik Jonsson
School of Engineering and
Computer Science. Archived (http
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04-18. Retrieved 2017-04-18.
11. Cook, Aaron. "Using Karnaugh
Maps to Simplify Code" (http://w
ww.quantumrarity.com/archives/
255) . Quantum Rarity. Archived
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Retrieved 2012-10-07.

Further reading

Katz, Randy Howard (1998) [1994].

Contemporary Logic Design (https://
archive.org/details/contemporarylo
gi00katz/page/70) . Vol. 26. The
Benjamin/Cummings Publishing
Company. pp. 70–85 (https://archiv
e.org/details/contemporarylogi00k
atz/page/70) . ISBN 0-8053-2703-
7.
Vingron, Shimon Peter (2004)
[2003-11-05]. "Karnaugh Maps".
Switching Theory: Insight Through
Predicate Logic. Berlin, Heidelberg,
New York: Springer-Verlag. pp. 57–
76. ISBN 3-540-40343-4.
Wickes, William E. (1968). "3.5.
Veitch Diagrams". Logic Design with
Integrated Circuits (https://archive.o
rg/details/logicdesignwithi00wick_
0) . New York, USA: John Wiley &
Sons. pp. 36–49 (https://archive.or
g/details/logicdesignwithi00wick_
0/page/36) . LCCN 68-21185 (http
s://lccn.loc.gov/68-21185) . p. 36: "
[…] a refinement of the Venn
diagram in that circles are replaced
by squares and arranged in a form
of matrix. The Veitch diagram
labels the squares with the
minterms. Karnaugh assigned 1s
and 0s to the squares and their
labels and deduced the numbering
scheme in common use."
Maxfield, Clive "Max" (2006-11-29).
"Reed-Muller Logic" (http://www.eet
imes.com/author.asp?section_id=2
16&doc_id=1274545) . Logic 101.
EE Times. Part 3. Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20170419235
904/http://www.eetimes.com/auth
or.asp?section_id=216&doc_id=127
4545) from the original on 2017-
04-19. Retrieved 2017-04-19.
Lind, Larry Frederick; Nelson, John
Christopher Cunliffe (1977).
"Section 2.3". Analysis and Design
of Sequential Digital Systems (http
s://archive.org/details/AnalysisDesi
gnOfSequentialDigitalSystems/) .
Macmillan Press. ISBN 0-
33319266-4. (146 pages)
Holder, Michel Elizabeth (March
2005) [2005-02-14]. "A modified
Karnaugh map technique" (https://
www.researchgate.net/publication/
3050984) . IEEE Transactions on
Education. 48 (1). IEEE: 206–207.
Bibcode:2005ITEdu..48..206H (http
s://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/200
5ITEdu..48..206H) .
doi:10.1109/TE.2004.832879 (http
s://doi.org/10.1109%2FTE.2004.83
2879) . eISSN 1557-9638 (https://s
earch.worldcat.org/issn/1557-963
8) . ISSN 0018-9359 (https://searc
h.worldcat.org/issn/0018-9359) .
S2CID 25576523 (https://api.sema
nticscholar.org/CorpusID:2557652
3) .
Cavanagh, Joseph (2008).
Computer Arithmetic and Verilog
HDL Fundamentals (1 ed.). CRC
Press.
Kohavi, Zvi; Jha, Niraj K. (2009).
Switching and Finite Automata
Theory (3 ed.). Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-
85748-2.
Grund, Jürgen (2011). KV-
Diagramme in der Schaltalgebra -
Verknüpfungen, Beweise,
Normalformen, schaltalgebraische
Umformungen,
Anschauungsmodelle,
Paradebeispiele (http://www.viadem
ica.de/content/minititel/263.pdf)
[KV diagrams in Boolean algebra -
relations, proofs, normal forms,
algebraic transformations,
illustrative models, typical examples]
(Windows/Mac executable or
Adobe Flash-capable browser on
CD-ROM) (e-book) (in German)
(1 ed.). Berlin, Germany: viademica
Verlag. ISBN 978-3-939290-08-7.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20221112172143/http://www.
viademica.de/content/minititel/26
3.pdf) (PDF) from the original on
 2022-11-12. Retrieved 2022-11-26.
[2] (http://www.viademica.de/conte
nt/buchkatalog/detail.php?id=263)
(282 pages with 14 animations)

External links

Detect Overlapping Rectangles (htt

p://gandraxa.com/detect_overlappi
ng_subrectangles.xml) , by Herbert
Glarner.
Using Karnaugh maps in practical
applications (http://www.sccs.swar
thmore.edu/users/06/adem/engin/
e15/lab1/) , Circuit design project
to control traffic lights.
K-Map Tutorial for 2,3,4 and 5
variables (https://www.fullchipdesi
gn.com/kmap2v.htm)
POCKET–PC BOOLEAN FUNCTION
SIMPLIFICATION, Ledion Bitincka —
George E. Antoniou (http://iris.elf.st
uba.sk/JEEEC/data/pdf/07-08_105
-08.pdf)
K-Map troubleshoot (https://www.y
outube.com/watch?v=5_dxk2FqEn
Y)
"Guide To The K-Map (Karnaugh
Map" (https://www.csusm.edu/ste
msc/handouts/project2_handouts/
cs231_karnaugh_maps.pdf) (PDF).
California State University San
 Marcos
(https://www.csusm.edu/) .
Retrieved 2023-12-18.

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