of tangent, and then y-intercept. Finally, we can conclude the equation as a 2.

Limits
form of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏.
Intuitive Definition of a Limit: Suppose
Piecewise function: A function can consist of 2 or more 𝑓(𝑥) is defined when 𝑥 is near the number
functions with a limited range of x for each of them. 𝑎. (This means that f is defined on some
The function below is an example of a piecewise open interval that contains 𝑎, except
function that consists of 2 functions where 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) possibly at 𝑎 itself.) Then we write
when 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, 𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑥) = ℎ(𝑥) when 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, +∞).
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
→
𝑔(𝑥), 𝑥<𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) = and say “the limit of 𝑓(𝑥), as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎, equals 𝐿”
ℎ(𝑥), 𝑥≥𝑎
if we can make the values of 𝑓(𝑥) arbitrarily close to 𝐿 (as close to 𝐿 as we like)
Increasing and Decreasing Functions: Whenever 𝑥 < 𝑥 in 𝐼 , a function on an by restricting 𝑥 to be su ciently close to 𝑎 (on either side of 𝑎) but not equal
interval is called: to 𝑎.
 Increasing if 𝑓(𝑥 ) < 𝑓(𝑥 )
One-sided Limits:
 Decreasing if 𝑓(𝑥 ) > 𝑓(𝑥 )
 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿: left-hand limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 is equal to L if we
Composite functions: Given 2 functions f and g, the →

composite function is denoted as (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓 𝑔(𝑥) , where can make the values of 𝑓(𝑥) arbitrarily close to 𝐿 by taking 𝑥 to be
su ciently close to 𝑎 with 𝑥 < 𝑎.
it can be said that it is equivalent to by taking the whole
 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿: right-hand limit is same as left-hand limit with 𝑥 > 𝑎.
function of 𝑔(𝑥) and replacing them with every single 𝑥 in the →
𝑓(𝑥) function. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
Note that, lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 ⇔ →
. If lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim 𝑓(𝑥) then lim 𝑓(𝑥)
Note that, in general, (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) ≠ (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥). With (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥), → lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 → → →
→
it is equivalent to by taking the whole function of 𝑓(𝑥) and does not exist (DNE). In some cases, lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(𝑎) (e.g. take limit as 𝑥
→
replacing them with every single 𝑥 in the 𝑔(𝑥) function.
, 𝑥≠2
approaches to 2 (lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0.25) and 𝑓(2) (= 2) of 𝑓(𝑥) = as an
One-to-one functions: For every 𝑦 𝜖 𝐸 , there is at most one 𝑥 𝜖 𝐷 , such that → 2, 𝑥 = 2
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦. For example, 𝑦 = 𝑥 is a one-to-one function and 𝑦 = 𝑥 is not. example)
Inverse functions: 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are inverses of each Properties: (Note that, 𝑎 can be ∞)
other when
lim [𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± lim 𝑔(𝑥) ; lim [𝑐𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑐 lim 𝑓(𝑥)
→ → → → →
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑥
( ) ( )
In order to find 𝑓 (𝑥), let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), then we solve for 𝑥 lim [𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥) ; lim ( )
= →
, lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0
→ → → → ( ) →
→
to get 𝑓 (𝑦) and then interchange 𝑥 and 𝑦.
The Squeeze Theorem: There are some functions 𝑓(𝑥) that quite challenging
Note that, 𝐷 = 𝑅 and 𝐷 = 𝑅 to find limit when 𝑥 approaches to 𝑎 by itself. However, if we can find 2
functions where one of them is surely no larger than 𝑓(𝑥) (𝑔(𝑥) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥)) and the
other is no smaller than 𝑓(𝑥) (ℎ(𝑥) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥)). And both 𝑔(𝑥) and ℎ(𝑥) are easy to
find the limit and both equal to a value, says 𝐿. Hence, it can be concluded that:

lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ lim ℎ(𝑥) ⇔ 𝐿 ≤ lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝐿 ⇔ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
→ → → → →

Page 2 of 10 Page 4 of 10

New Functions from Old Functions:

Vertical and Horizontal Shifts Suppose

Midterm Review (Made by Machvyan) 𝑐 > 0. To obtain the graph of

 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐 , shift the graph of 𝑦 =

𝑓(𝑥) a distance 𝑐 units upward
 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑐 , shift the graph of 𝑦 =
1. Functions and raphs 𝑓(𝑥) a distance 𝑐 units downward
A function 𝑓 is a rule that assigns to each  𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑐), shift the graph of 𝑦 =
element 𝑥 in a set 𝐷 exactly one element, 𝑓(𝑥) a distance 𝑐 units to the right
called f(x) (f of x), in a set 𝐸 .  𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑐), shift the graph of 𝑦 =
𝑓(𝑥) a distance 𝑐 units to the left
 Domain (D): The set of all possible real
𝑥 values that can compute 𝑓(𝑥) values. Vertical and Horizontal Stretching and Reflecting Suppose 𝑐 > 1. To obtain the
 Range (R): The set of all possible graph of
values of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 varies throughout
 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑓(𝑥), stretch the graph of 𝑦 =
the domain.
𝑓(𝑥) vertically by a factor of c
Straight Lines (𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒃):  𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), shrink the graph of 𝑦 =
y-intercept (“b”): is the value that 𝑓(𝑥) vertically by a factor of c
where that straight line and the y-axis  𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑐𝑥), shrink the graph of 𝑦 =
meet/intercept each other. In another 𝑓(𝑥) horizontally by a factor of c
word, when 𝑥 = 0, we have 𝑦 = 𝑏. Or if  𝑦=𝑓 , stretch the graph of 𝑦 =
any point (𝑥 , 𝑦 ) given with the slope 𝑓(𝑥) d horizontally by a factor of c
of tangent (“𝑚”), y-intercept value can  𝑦 = −𝑓(𝑥), reflect the graph of 𝑦 =
be calculated by: 𝑦 − 𝑦 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥 ) ⇔ 𝑓(𝑥) about the x-axis
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 − 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑦 ⇔ 𝑏 = 𝑦 − 𝑚𝑥 .  𝑦 = 𝑓(−𝑥), reflect the graph of 𝑦 =
Slope of Tangent (“𝑚”): 𝑓(𝑥) about the y-axis

 Given two points (𝑥 , 𝑦 ) and (𝑥 , 𝑦 ): Symmetry:

∆𝑦 𝑦 − 𝑦
𝑚= =  Even function: 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥), ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐷
∆𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑥
 Odd function: 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥), ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐷
 Given 1 point (𝑥 , 𝑦 ) and y-intercept (“𝑏”):
𝑦 −𝑏 Vertical Line Test: A curve in the xy−plane is the graph of a function if there is
𝑚=
𝑥 −0 no vertical line intersects the curve more than once.
Linear Model: Given the set of values (e.g. CO2 concentration) (which is 𝑥 ) and Parametric Curves: The function is presented as 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦) instead of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥),
a set of another belonging values (e.g. time, year, etc.) (which is 𝑦). To compute it can be said that the curves are presented as usual with 90° anticlockwise
the linear model, we take the first set of data (where usually 𝑦 is the earliest rotation.
time mark if y is used as a time unit) as (𝑥 , 𝑦 ) and the last set (which is the
latest time mark) as (𝑥 , 𝑦 ). Then we use the formula above to find the slope

Page 1 of 10 Page 3 of 10
 4. Implicit Di erentiation
Step 1. Di erentiate both sides of the equation
1. Tan ent, Velocity Problems. Rates o Chan e with respect to 𝑥 .
Average Rate of Change:
Step 2. Solve for 𝑦
Δ𝑦 𝑦 − 𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑓(𝑥 )
𝑚= = = (Example: Di erentiate both sides of 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 2 respect to 𝑥. We
Δ𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑥 −𝑥
have: 𝑦 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 1. As we can see, 𝑥 = (𝑥) = 1 and 𝑦 = (𝑦))
Average Velocity:
Δs 𝑠 − 𝑠 𝑠(𝑡 ) − 𝑠(𝑡 )
𝑣 = = =
Δt 𝑡 − 𝑡 𝑡 −𝑡 5. Di erentiation o Inverse Functions
Instantaneous Rate of Change: Assume that 𝑓(𝑥) is di erentiable and one-to-one with inverse 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥). If
𝑏 belongs to the domain of 𝑔(𝑥) and 𝑓 𝑔(𝑏) ≠ 0, then 𝑔′(𝑏) exists and
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑚 = lim
→ 𝑥−𝑎 1
𝑔 (𝑏) =
The Tangent Line: 𝑓 𝑔(𝑏)

𝑦 − 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑎) ⇔ 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑓(𝑎) − 𝑚𝑎 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions:

(sin 𝑥) = ; (cos 𝑥) = −
√ √

2. The Derivative. Hi her Order Derivatives (tan 𝑥) = ; (cot 𝑥) = −

Definition: With ℎ = 𝑥 − 𝑎, derivative of a function 𝑓 at point 𝑎 is:
(csc 𝑥) = − ; (sec 𝑥) =
√ √
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓 (𝑎) = lim = lim
→ 𝑥−𝑎 → ℎ

Notation: 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑦 = = = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐷𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐷 𝑓(𝑥)

Unable to be di erentiable: “corner”, discontinuity, vertical tangent

Note that, if 𝑓 is di erentiable at 𝑎 then 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑎, but not in the

opposite way.

Higher Other Derivatives: 𝑦( )

= 𝑓 ( ) (𝑥) =

Page 6 of 10 Page 8 of 10

3. Continuity 3. Rules o Di erentiation

Definition: A function f is continuous at a number 𝑎 if Power Rule: For all exponent 𝑛:

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑑

→ (𝑥 ) = 𝑛𝑥
𝑑𝑥
In another words, to prove that a function
New Derivatives from Old:
𝑓 is continuous at a, it needs to reach these
conditions:  Constant multiple rule: [𝑐𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑐 𝑓(𝑥)
 𝑓(𝑎) is defined (𝑎 ∈ 𝐷)  Sum/di erence rule: [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)
 lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists
→ Product Rule: (𝑓𝑔) = 𝑓𝑔 + 𝑓 𝑔
 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
→
Quotient Rule: =
If 𝑓 and 𝑡 are continuous at 𝑎 and if 𝑐 is a constant, then the following functions
are also continuous at 𝑎: 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 − 𝑔, 𝑐𝑓, 𝑓𝑔, if 𝑔(𝑎) ≠ 0. Derivative of Trigonometric Functions: sec 𝑥 = ; csc 𝑥 =
Let 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) be a composite function. If 𝑔 is continuous at 𝑎 and 𝑓 is
(sin 𝑥) = cos 𝑥 (cos 𝑥) = − sin 𝑥 (tan 𝑥) = sec 𝑥
continuous at 𝑔(𝑎), then 𝐹(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑎.

The Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT): (csc 𝑥) = − csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥 (sec 𝑥) = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 (cot 𝑥) = −csc 𝑥

Using this theorem to prove that there is at least one root Chain Rule: 𝐹 (𝑥) = 𝑓 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑔 (𝑥) ; =
between [𝑎, 𝑏]. If the task asks to prove the function has
two or more roots. Do these steps:  General Power and Exponential Rules:
o ([𝑔(𝑥)] ) = 𝑛[𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑔 (𝑥)
1. Use Shift Solve in calculator to know exact values of roots and
( ) ( )
approximate the large of the range (if possible) o 𝑒 = 𝑔 (𝑥)𝑒
2. Determine some appropriate 𝑥 values and compute their 𝑓(𝑥) for each o (𝑎 ) = 𝑎 ln 𝑎
of them for the range. The number of 𝑥 values that need to be prepared
should be one more than the number of roots that asked to prove (It can Logarithmic Di erentiation: (log 𝑥) = ; (ln 𝑥) =
have more, but no less). Saying that we have a sequence of 𝑥 values that
Economics application:
need to be prepared in increasing order is: 𝑥 , 𝑥 , 𝑥 , …. We need to
determine the value of each 𝑥 that reaches the condition that 𝑓(𝑥 )  Cost function: 𝐶 = 𝑓(𝑥)
have opposite sign to its adjacent 𝑓(𝑥) in the order 𝑥 above. In another  Marginal Cost: 𝐶 (𝑥) ≈ 𝐶(𝑥 + 1) − 𝐶(𝑥)
word, it should make 𝑓(𝑥 ) × 𝑓(𝑥) < 0 and 𝑓(𝑥) × 𝑓(𝑥 ) < 0.  Recall: Revenue = (number of units sold) × (price per unit)
3. Order the range that those don’t collapse each other at any range. By
using the order 𝑥 above, we have the ranges are: (𝑥 , 𝑥 ), (𝑥 , 𝑥 ), (𝑥 , 𝑥 ), …
4. Says/Proves that 𝑓(𝑥) are continuous on all those ranges.
5. Shows the value of 𝑓(𝑥 ), 𝑓(𝑥 ), … and shows that by time the two
adjacent values of 𝑓(𝑥) that smaller than 0. We can prove that there
exists a real root 𝑐 ∈ (𝑥 , 𝑥 ) of the equation 𝑓(𝑥). Do the same to the
other ranges till reach the requirement of the task.

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Question
Challenge 1. Let 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 4 and ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 9. Do the following tasks:

(a) Are any of 𝑔(𝑥), ℎ(𝑥) even/odd function? Determine the domain and
range of 𝑔(𝑥) and ℎ(𝑥). From that, determine domain and range of
𝑔(𝑥 − 5), ℎ(𝑥) − 7, 2ℎ(𝑥), −𝑔(𝑥).
(b) Compute (𝑔 ∘ ℎ)(𝑥) and (ℎ ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥). Determine their domain and range.
Are 𝑔(𝑥) and ℎ(𝑥) inverses each other? Why? Find 𝑔 (𝑥) and ℎ (𝑥) if
𝑔(𝑥) and ℎ(𝑥) are not inverses each other.
(𝑔 ∘ ℎ)(𝑥), 𝑥 < 0
(c) Let 𝑓(𝑥) = Determine domain and range of 𝑓(𝑥). Sketch
(ℎ ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥), 𝑥 ≥ 0
the function 𝑓(𝑥) on Cartesian plane (xy-plane). Find lim 𝑓(𝑥).
→
(𝑔 ∘ ℎ)(𝑥 − 3), 𝑥 < 0
(d) Does 𝑓(𝑥) continuous on 0? Find 𝑐 that 𝑓 (𝑥) =
(ℎ ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥 + 3) + 𝑐, 𝑥 ≥ 0
continuous on ℝ.

Challenge 2. The following table is the AMPs of AMPs of AMPs of

Month CS2 (in LoL (in PUBG (in
set of data (from activeplayer.io) of million) million) million)
Average Monthly Players (AMPs for Oct-24 49.742 130.394 272.121
Sep-24 50.243 133.246 277.602
short) of 3 games, which are Counter Aug-24 53.828 129.806 265.699
Strike 2 (CS2), League of Legend (LoL), Jul-24 52.639 130.528 273.888
Jun-24 53.259 125.992 269.572
and PlayerUnknown’s BattleGrounds May-24 55.041 133.466 254.433
(PUBG), over a time set of 24 months Apr-24 51.770 128.853 251.889
Mar-24 45.981 132.022 224.101
from November 2022 (Nov-22) to
Feb-24 44.473 141.098 223.430
October 2024 (Oct-24). Compute Linear Jan-24 47.933 143.071 267.647
Models of AMPs (𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 ) for each of Dec-23 44.473 136.077 223.430
Nov-23 40.011 126.863 211.963
these games and answer the following Oct-23 49.305 133.540 204.419
questions: Sep-23 45.695 144.994 199.239
Aug-23 43.354 153.109 205.826
(a) What are the expected AMPs of each Jul-23 42.379 151.144 201.395
of those 3 games in November 2024 by Jun-23 40.946 149.057 199.007
May-23 36.058 152.973 202.202
using the Linear Models?
Apr-23 37.600 153.505 202.812
(b) Which of those games tend to get less Mar-23 36.508 151.200 204.628
(lose more) AMPs per month than the Feb-23 38.051 149.663 205.246
Jan-23 36.201 151.446 198.734
other two by comparing these 3 Linear Dec-22 36.015 148.506 198.139
Models together? Why? Nov-22 35.698 149.981 197.190

Page 10 of 10

6. Linear Approximations. Di erentials. Applications.

Linear Approximations:

𝑓(𝑥) ≈ 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓 (𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎)

Where 𝑥 is the number that needs to be approximate and 𝑎 is the number that
near 𝑥 (and 𝑎 is usually a good number (e.g. whole number) that easy to
calculate)

Di erentials: Let Δ𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎) and Δ𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑎

By let 𝑑𝑥 = Δ𝑥, we can see that the change in equation is Δ𝑦.

The di erential 𝑑𝑦 is defined as 𝑑𝑓 = 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑎)𝑑𝑥

Applications:

 Moving Object: With 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑡), we have:

o Velocity: 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑠 (𝑡)
o Acceleration: 𝑎(𝑡) = 𝑣 (𝑡) = 𝑠 (𝑡)
 Exponential Growth and Decay: Quantities 𝑦 grow or decay at 𝑎 rate
proportional to their size which is
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑘𝑦
𝑑𝑡
The only solution is the exponential function: 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑦(0) + 𝑒
(where 𝑘 is called the relative growth rate)
Note that the concept can also be used in another concept like
population growth for example.
 Continuously Compounded Interest:
Suppose an amount of $𝐴 is invested in the bank, with continuous
compounding of interest at interest rate 𝑟, the amount after 𝑡 years is
𝐴(𝑡) = 𝐴 𝑒
The rate of increase of investment: = 𝑟𝐴(𝑡)

Resources
 Lectures’ note [PowerPoint Slides] by Assoc Prof. Nguyen Minh Quan
 Textbooks: “Calculus 8th ed.” By James Stewart
 Online Platform: Websites such as Khan Academy, Cuemath, etc.

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