Solutions to Problems 49

13. Yes, depending upon the choice of circuit variables and technique used to write the system equations.
For example, a three -loop problem with three energy storage elements could yield three simultaneous
second-order differential equations which would then be described by six, first-order differential equations.
This exact situation arose when we wrote the differential equations for mechanical systems and then
proceeded to find the state equations.
14. The state variables are successive derivatives.

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS
1.
Add the branch currents and node voltages to the network.

Write the differential equation for each energy storage element.

di2
= v1
dt
di4
= v2
dt
dv o
= i5
dt
⎡i ⎤
⎢ 2⎥
Therefore, the state vector is x = ⎢ i4 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣vo ⎦

Now obtain v1, v2, and i5 in terms of the state variables. First find i1 in terms of the state variables.

−v i + i1 + i3 + i5 + vo = 0
But i3 = i1 − i2 and i5 = i3 − i4 . Thus,
−v i + i1 + (i1 − i2 ) + (i3 − i4 ) + vo = 0
Making the substitution for i3 yields
−v i + i1 + (i1 − i2 ) + ((i1 − i2 ) − i4 ) + vo = 0

Solving for i1
50 Chapter 3: Modeling in the Time Domain

2 1 1 1
i1 = i2 + i4 − vo + vi
3 3 3 3
Thus,
2 1 1 2
v1 = vi − i1 = − i2 − i4 + vo + vi
3 3 3 3
Also,
1 1 1 1
i3 = i1 − i2 = − i2 + i4 − vo + vi
3 3 3 3
and
1 2 1 1
i 5 = i3 − i4 = − i2 − i4 − vo + vi
3 3 3 3
Finally,
1 2 2 1
v 2 = i5 + vo = − i2 − i 4 + vo + vi
3 3 3 3
Using v1, v2, and i5, the state equation is

⎡ 2 1 1 ⎤ ⎡2 ⎤
⎢− − ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 3 3 3 ⎥ ⎢ 3⎥
•
⎢
x = ⎢−
1
−
2 2 ⎥
x + ⎢⎢ ⎥⎥ vi
1
3 3 ⎥
3 ⎥
⎢ 1 2 1⎥ ⎢ 13 ⎥
⎢− − − ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 3 3 3⎦ ⎣ 3⎦
y = [0 0 1]x
2.
Add branch currents and node voltages to the schematic and obtain,

Write the differential equation for each energy storage element.

 Solutions to Problems 51

dv1
= i2
dt
di3
= vL
dt

⎡v1 ⎤
Therefore the state vector is x = ⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ i3 ⎦⎥

Now obtain v L and i2 , in terms of the state variables,

v L = v1 − v2 = v1 − iR = v1 − (i3 + 4v1 ) = − 3v1 − i3

i2 = i1 − i3 = ( vi − v1 ) − i3 = −v1 − i3 + vi

Also, the output is

y = iR = 4v1 + i3

Hence,
• ⎡ −1 − 1⎤ ⎡ 1⎤
x=⎢ ⎥ x + ⎢ ⎥ vi
⎣− 3 − 1⎦ ⎣ 0⎦
y = [4 1]x
3.
Let C1 be the grounded capacitor and C 2 be the other. Now, writing the equations for the energy
storage components yields,

di L
= v i − vC1
dt
dv C1
= i1 − i2 (1)
dt
dv C2
= i2 − i3
dt
⎡ ⎤
⎢ iL ⎥
Thus the state vector is x = ⎢ vC1 ⎥ . Now, find the three loop currents in terms of the state variables
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣vC2 ⎦⎥

and the input.

Writing KVL around Loop 2 yields vC 1 = vC 2 + i2 .Or,

i2 = vC 1 − vC 2

Writing KVL around the outer loop yields i3 + i2 = vi Or,

i3 = vi − i2 = vi − vC1 + vC 2
52 Chapter 3: Modeling in the Time Domain

Also, i1 − i3 = iL . Hence,
i1 = iL + i3 = i L + vi − v C1 + vC 2

Substituting the loop currents in equations (1) yields the results in vector-matrix form,

⎡ di ⎤
⎢ L ⎥
⎢ dt ⎥ ⎡ 0 −1 0 ⎤ ⎡⎢ i L ⎤⎥ ⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ dvC1 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ 1 − 2 2 ⎥ ⎢⎢ vC1 ⎥⎥ + ⎢ 1 ⎥ vi
⎢ dt ⎥ ⎢⎣ 0 2 − 2⎥⎦ ⎢v ⎥ ⎢⎣ − 1⎥⎦
⎢ dv C2 ⎥ ⎣ C2 ⎦
⎢⎣ dt ⎥⎦

Since vo = i2 = vC1 − vC 2 , the output equation is

⎡ ⎤
⎢ iL ⎥
y = [0 1 1]⎢ v C1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ vC2 ⎦⎥
4.
Equations of motion in Laplace:

(s 2 + 3s + 1)x1 (s) − (s + 1)x2 (s) − sx3 (s) = 0

−(s + 1)x1 (s) + (s 2 + 2s + 1)x2 (s) − sx3 (s) = F(s)
− sx1 (s) − sx 2 (s) + (s 2 + 3s)x 3 (s) = 0
Equations of motion in the time domain:
d 2 x1 dx dx dx
2
+ 3 1 + x1 − 2 − x 2 − 3 = 0
dt dt dt dt
d 2 x2 dx 2 dx dx
2 +2 + x2 − 1 − x1 − 3 = f (t)
dt dt dt dt
2
d x3 dx 3 dx dx
2 +3 + x1 − 2 − 1 = 0
dt dt dt dt
Define state variables:

z1 = x1 or x1 = z1 (1)
dx dx1
z2 = 1 or = z2 (2)
dt dt
z3 = x2 or x2 = z3 (3)
dx2 dx 2
z4 = or = z4 (4)
dt dt
z5 = x3 or x 3 = z5 (5)
dx dx3
z6 = 3 or = z5 (6)
dt dt
 Solutions to Problems 53

Substituting Eq. (1) in (2), (3) in (4), and (5) in (6), we obtain, respectively:

dz1
= z2 (7)
dt
dz3
= z4 (8)
dt
dz5
= z6 (9)
dt
Substituting Eqs. (1) through (6) into the equations of motion in the time domain and solving for the
derivatives of the state variables and using Eqs. (7) through (9) yields the state equations:

dz1
= z2
dt
dz 2
= −z1 − 3z2 + z3 + z 4 + z6
dt
dz 3
= z4
dt
dz 4
= z1 + z 2 − z3 − 2z4 + z6 + f (t)
dt
dz 5
= z6
dt
dz 6
= z2 + z4 − 3z6
dt
The output is x3 = z5.

In vector-matrix form:

⎡0 1 0 0 0 0 ⎤ ⎡0 ⎤
⎢ −1 −3 1 1 0 1 ⎥ ⎢0 ⎥
. ⎢0 0 0 1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢0 ⎥
z=⎢ z+ f (t)
1 1 −1 −2 0 1 ⎥ ⎢1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
0 0 0 0 0 1 0
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 1 0 1 0 −3⎦ ⎣0 ⎦

y = [0 0 0 0 1 0]z
5.
Writing the equations of motion,
54 Chapter 3: Modeling in the Time Domain

(s 2 + 2s + 1)X1 (s) − sX2 (s) − (s + 1)X3 (s) = 0

− sX1 (s) + (s2 + 2s + 1)X2 (s) − (s + 1)X3 (s) = 0
−(s + 1)X1 (s) − (s + 1)X2 (s) + (s 2 + 2s + 2)X3 (s) = F(s)

Taking the inverse Laplace transform,

•• • • •
x1 + 2 x1 + x1 − x 2 − x3 − x 3 = 0
• •• • •
− x1 + x 2 + 2 x 2 + x2 − x 3 − x3 = 0
• • •• •
− x1 − x1 − x2 − x 2 + x3 + 2 x3 + 2x 3 = f (t)

Simplifying,
•• • • •
x1 = −2 x1 − x1 + x2 + x 3 + x 3
•• • • •
x2 = x1 − 2 x2 − x 2 + x3 + x3
•• • • •
x3 = x1 + x1 + x2 + x 2 − 2 x3 − 2x3 + f (t)

Defining the state variables,

• • •
z1 = x1 ; z2 = x1 ; z3 = x2 ; z4 = x2 ; z5 = x 3 ; z6 = x3

Writing the state equations using the simplified equations above yields,
• •
z1 = x1 = z 2
• ••
z2 = x1 = −2z2 − z1 + z4 + z6 + z5
• •
z3 = x2 = z4
• ••
z4 = x 2 = z2 − 2z4 − z3 + z6 + z5
• •
z5 = x3 = z6
• ••
z6 = x3 = z 2 + z1 + z4 + z3 − 2z6 − 2z5 + f (t )

Converting to vector-matrix form,

 Solutions to Problems 55

⎡0 1 0 0 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0⎤
⎢ −1 −2 0 1 1 1 ⎥ ⎢ 0⎥
• ⎢0 0 0 1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0⎥
z =⎢ z+ f (t)
0 1 −1 −2 1 1 ⎥ ⎢ 0⎥
⎢0 0 0 0 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ 0⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 1 1 1 −2 −2⎦ ⎣ 1⎦
y = [1 0 0 0 0 0 ]z

6.
Drawing the equivalent network,

Writing the equations of motion,

(100s 2 + 100)θ2 − 100θ 3 = 10T

−100θ 2 + (100s2 + 100s + 100)θ 3 = 0

Taking the inverse Laplace transform and simplifying,

•• 1
θ 2 + θ2 − θ3 = T
10
•• •
− θ2 + θ 3 + θ3 + θ 3 = 0

Defining the state variables as

• •
x1 = θ2 , x 2 = θ 2 , x3 = θ3 , x 4 = θ 3

Writing the state equations using the equations of motion and the definitions of the state variables
56 Chapter 3: Modeling in the Time Domain

•
x1 = x 2
• •• 1 1
x2 = θ 2 = −θ 2 + θ3 + T = − x1 + x3 + T
10 10
•
x3 = x 4 ,
• •• •
x4 = θ 3 = θ 2 − θ 3 − θ3 = x1 − x 3 − x 4
y = 10θ 2 = 10x1

In vector-matrix form,

⎡0 1 0 0⎤ ⎡0⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢1⎥
• ⎢−1 0 1 0⎥ ⎢ ⎥
x=⎢ ⎥ x + ⎢ 10 ⎥T
⎢0 0 0 1⎥ ⎢0⎥
⎢⎣ 1 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
0 −1 −1⎦ ⎣0⎦
y = [10 0 0 0]x
7.
Drawing the equivalent circuit,

Writing the equations of motion,

42θ 2 (s) − 2θ 3 (s) = 20T(s)

−2θ 2 (s) + (3s + 2)θ 3 (s) − 3sθ 4 (s) = 0
−3sθ3 (s) + 5sθ 4 (s) = 0

Taking the inverse Laplace transform,

42 θ2 (t) − 2θ 3 (t) = 20T (t) (1)

• •
−2θ 2 (t) + 3 θ 3 (t) + 2θ 3 − 3 θ 4 (t) = 0 (2)
• •
−3 θ3 (t) + 5 θ 4 (t) = 0 (3)
From (3),
 Solutions to Problems 57

• 5 • 5
θ 3 (t ) = θ4 (t ) and θ 3 (t ) = θ4 (t ) (4)
3 3
assuming zero initial conditions.

From (1)
1 10 5 10
θ 2 (t ) = θ 3 (t ) + T (t ) = θ4 (t ) + T (t ) (5)
21 21 63 21
Substituting (4) and (5) into (2) yields the state equation (notice there is only one equation),

• 100 10
θ 4 (t ) = − θ 4 ( t ) + T (t )
63 21
The output equation is given by,

1
θL ( t) = θ 4 (t )
10
8.
X1 (s) X (s)
Solving Eqs. (3.44) and (3.45) in the text for the transfer functions and 2 :
F(s) F(s)
0 −K M 1 s2 + D s + K 0
F M2 s2 + K −K F
X 1 s = and X 2 s =
M 1 s2 + D s + K −K M 1 s2 + D s + K −K
−K M2 s2 + K −K M 2 s2 + K

Thus,
X1 s = K
4 3 2 2
F s M 2 M 1 s +D M 2 s +K M 2 s +K M 1 s +D K s

and
2
X2 s M 1 s +D s +K
= 4 3 2 2
F s M 2 M 1 s +D M 2 s +K M 2 s +K M 1 s +D K s

Multiplying each of the above transfer functions by s to find velocity yields pole/zero cancellation at
the origin and a resulting transfer function that is third order.

9.
a. . Using the standard form derived in the textbook,

⎡ 0 1 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0⎤
• ⎢ 0 0 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0⎥
x= x+ r(t)
⎢ 0 0 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ 0⎥
⎢⎣−100 −7 −10 −20 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 1⎥⎦

c = [100 0 0 0]x

b. Using the standard form derived in the textbook,

58 Chapter 3: Modeling in the Time Domain

⎡ 0 1 0 0 0⎤ ⎡0 ⎤
⎢ 0 0 1 0 0⎥ ⎢0 ⎥
•
⎢
x= 0 0 0 1 0 x + ⎢0 ⎥ r(t)
⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 0 1⎥ ⎢0 ⎥
⎢−30 −1 −6 −9 −8⎥ ⎢1 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
c = [30 0 0 0 0]x
10.
Program:
'a'
num=100;
den=[1 20 10 7 100];
G=tf(num,den)
[Acc,Bcc,Ccc,Dcc]=tf2ss(num,den);
Af=flipud(Acc);
A=fliplr(Af)
B=flipud(Bcc)
C=fliplr(Ccc)
'b'
num=30;
den=[1 8 9 6 1 30];
G=tf(num,den)
[Acc,Bcc,Ccc,Dcc]=tf2ss(num,den);
Af=flipud(Acc);
A=fliplr(Af)
B=flipud(Bcc)
C=fliplr(Ccc)

Computer response:
ans =

Transfer function:
100
---------------------------------
s^4 + 20 s^3 + 10 s^2 + 7 s + 100

A =

0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
-100 -7 -10 -20

B =

0
0
0
1

C =

100 0 0 0

ans =

b
 Solutions to Problems 59

Transfer function:
30
------------------------------------
s^5 + 8 s^4 + 9 s^3 + 6 s^2 + s + 30

A =

0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 1
-30 -1 -6 -9 -8

B =

0
0
0
0
1

C =

30 0 0 0 0

11.
a. Using the standard form derived in the textbook,

⎡ 0 1 00⎤ ⎡ 0⎤
• ⎢ 0 0 10⎥ ⎢ 0⎥
x= x+ r(t )
⎢ 0 0 0 1⎥ ⎢ 0⎥
⎢⎣−10 −5 −1 −2⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 1⎥⎦

c = [10 5 0 0 0]x

b. Using the standard form derived in the textbook,

⎡0 1 0 0 0⎤ ⎡ 0⎤
⎢0 0 1 0 0⎥ ⎢ 0⎥
•
x = ⎢0 0 0 1 0 ⎥ x + ⎢ 0⎥ r(t)
⎢0 0 0 0 1⎥ ⎢ 0⎥
⎢0 0 −8 −10 −9⎥⎦ ⎢ 1⎥
⎣ ⎣ ⎦
c = [3 7 12 2 1]x

12.
Program:
'a'
num=[5 10];
den=[1 2 1 5 10]
G=tf(num,den)
[Acc,Bcc,Ccc,Dcc]=tf2ss(num,den);
Af=flipud(Acc);
A=fliplr(Af)
B=flipud(Bcc)