Seminar №1

1. General information about variations in English.

English is one of the most widely spoken languages in the world and is used by millions of
people every day. Despite being called a single language, many variations of English have
evolved. These diverse variations range from regional dialects to entirely new languages. Each
country has its unique version of the English language, which can make it difficult to translate
between different variations.
The English language, like all human languages, varies in grammar, vocabulary, and
pronunciation according to a number of social and cultural factors, including the region where a
person grows. Socio-linguistics, the scientific study of that variation, seeks to observe, record,
describe, explain, and ultimately predict its occurrence.
It is possible to distinguish two main types of variation. The first of these, which can be called
between-group variation, includes the sort of geographical or regional varieties. A between-
group variety refers to that version of a language that marks a person as belonging to a specific
social group, e.g., as a native of New York City. Between group varieties also include varieties
associated with social class, with gender or sex, and with ethnic group. Other varieties, which
have been less extensively studied, are those associated with age and occupation.
Most people take it for granted that regional varieties, or dialects, exist in all languages.
A dialect, in the strict sense of the word, is a language variety distinguished from other varieties
by differences of grammar and vocabulary. Accent, on the other hand, refers just to variations in
pronunciation.
2. Variation in pronunciation:
Variation in pronunciation refers to the differences in how words, phrases, or sounds are
pronounced by speakers of the same language or different dialects. These variations can occur
due to several factors, including geography, social background, age, and individual speech
habits.
Causes of pronunciation variation
a. Regional dialects and accents dialects are language variations associated with specific regions,
including grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation.
Accents refer specifically to pronunciation differences.
For example, the British English word bath is pronounced /bɑːθ/, while in American English, it
is /bæθ/.
b. Sociolinguistic factors social class: Prestige accents (e.g., Received Pronunciation) vs. non-
prestige accents.
Ethnicity: Pronunciation influenced by cultural identity.
Age: Younger speakers often adopt trends (e.g., vocal fry).
c. Individual factors speech style: Formal vs. casual settings influence articulation.
Physiological differences: Unique vocal tract shapes or disorders.
d. Linguistic environment coarticulation: Sounds influence neighboring sounds (e.g., did you
→ /dɪdʒu/).
Connected Speech Processes: Elision, assimilation, linking, or intrusive sounds
- Received Pronunciation;
Received Pronunciation (RP) is often considered the standard accent of British English. It
originated among the upper classes of Southern England and became associated with education
and prestige. Although RP is widely recognized, only a small percentage of British speakers use
it today. Variants of RP have also emerged, such as "Conservative RP" (traditional and formal),
"Mainstream RP" (modern and neutral), and "Contemporary RP" (influenced by younger
speakers and social change). RP’s distinctiveness lies in its non-rhotic nature (the omission of /r/
at the end of syllables), its specific vowel sounds (e.g., /ɑː/ in "bath"), and the absence of
glottalization.
- Language change;
Language change affects pronunciation over time, leading to shifts in phonetic and phonological
patterns. Historical processes such as the Great Vowel Shift in English drastically altered long
vowels, creating differences between Middle and Modern English pronunciations. Sound
changes may involve simplification (e.g., elision or omission of sounds in fast speech),
assimilation (sounds becoming more similar to neighboring sounds), or innovation (new
pronunciations emerging). These changes are often gradual but can lead to significant divergence
between related languages or dialects.
- Stylistic variation;
Stylistic variation refers to changes in pronunciation based on context, audience, or purpose.
Speakers adjust their speech depending on whether they are in a formal or informal setting, a
phenomenon known as register shifting. In formal contexts, articulation tends to be clearer and
more precise, while casual speech often involves reductions, contractions, or connected speech
processes like linking and flapping. For example, "going to" might be pronounced as "gonna" in
informal settings. Stylistic variation allows speakers to convey social cues such as politeness,
familiarity, or authority.
- Regional variation.
Regional variation highlights differences in pronunciation across geographic areas. Dialects and
accents develop distinct features due to geographic, social, and historical factors. For instance, in
British English, Northern accents typically retain a short vowel in words like "grass" (/ɡræs/),
while Southern accents use a long vowel (/ɡrɑːs/). In American English, variations include the
rhotic accents of the Midwest and South, where /r/ is pronounced in all positions, compared to
the non-rhotic accents of parts of New England. Regional variations can also affect intonation,
stress patterns, and rhythm, contributing to the richness of linguistic diversity.
3. Grammatical and lexical variation:

Grammatical and lexical variation refers to differences in the structure and vocabulary of a
language based on region, social group, context, or other factors. These variations provide
insight into how language evolves and adapts to meet the needs of its speakers.

Grammatical variation involves differences in how sentences are constructed, such as changes in
word order, verb conjugation, tense usage, or syntactic structures. For example, in British
English, collective nouns like "team" or "family" often take plural verbs ("The team are
winning"), while in American English, they usually take singular verbs ("The team is winning").
Similarly, in some dialects of English, double negatives like "I don't know nothing" are
grammatically acceptable, even though they are considered non-standard in formal English.

Lexical variation refers to differences in the words people use to refer to the same concept. These
variations are particularly noticeable across regions and dialects. For example, British English
uses "flat" for what American English calls an "apartment." In Australia, "thongs" refer to what
Americans call "flip-flops." Within the same country, regional terms also differ; in the US,
"soda," "pop," and "coke" are all used to mean a carbonated drink, depending on the region.

Social factors also influence grammatical and lexical variation. Age, gender, ethnicity, and social
class can affect word choice and grammatical constructions. For instance, younger speakers
often innovate new slang terms, such as "lit" or "vibe," which might be unfamiliar to older
generations. Similarly, different social groups may use distinct vocabulary or grammatical
features as markers of identity.

- Standard English;

Standard English represents a form of the language considered the norm for formal
communication, often used in education, media, and official documents. Its grammar and
vocabulary are standardized to ensure consistency, but this "standard" is itself a product of
historical and social processes. For example, Standard British English favors constructions like
"I have got" for possession, whereas Standard American English often uses "I have." Despite its
widespread use, Standard English is just one variety among many and does not encompass the
full diversity of English grammar and vocabulary.

- Language change;
Language change is a continuous process, and grammatical and lexical variation reflect this evolution.
Over time, new grammatical structures emerge, and old ones may fall out of use. For example, English
once used the second-person singular pronoun "thou," which has now been replaced by "you" in most
varieties. Lexical change is even more dynamic, with words being borrowed, created, or altered in
meaning. The word "cool," for instance, originally referred to temperature but has taken on meanings
related to approval or trendiness.

- Stylistic Variation;
Stylistic variation occurs when speakers adjust their language to suit different contexts, ranging from
formal to informal. Grammatical structures and vocabulary often change depending on the situation. In
a formal setting, one might use "It is I who am responsible," whereas in casual speech, "It's me" is more
common. Lexical choices also shift with style; a technical term like "myocardial infarction" might appear
in medical writing, while "heart attack" is used in everyday conversation. Stylistic variation enables
speakers to convey nuances of tone, professionalism, or intimacy.

- Regional variation.
Regional variation refers to differences in grammar and vocabulary across geographic areas. In British
English, certain dialects use grammatical features such as "I were" instead of "I was" or "she do" instead
of "she does." Lexically, regional differences are abundant: British English "lorry" corresponds to
American English "truck," and "biscuit" in the UK refers to what Americans call a "cookie." These
variations arise from historical migration patterns, cultural influences, and local innovations.

4. The idea of correctness in language.

The idea of correctness in language has been a recurring topic in discussions about grammar,
vocabulary, and usage. However, the concept of "correctness" is often subjective and influenced
by social norms rather than linguistic absolutes. Three types of linguistic elements are commonly
labeled as incorrect, though this judgment may not always hold up under scrutiny.

The first type involves elements that are new to the language. Innovations, such as newly
coined words or expressions, often face resistance from many speakers who view them as
improper or unnecessary. For instance, words like "selfie" or "googling" were initially met with
skepticism. Over time, however, such elements tend to be accepted into the language if they
prove useful, illustrating that correctness can evolve with usage and necessity.

The second type pertains to features of informal speech. These are often criticized as
incorrect in formal contexts, but their appropriateness depends on style rather than inherent
linguistic value. For example, contractions like "gonna" or "wanna" are considered informal but
are widely used in casual conversation. Such features are stylistic choices rather than violations
of language norms, highlighting the context-dependent nature of correctness.

The third type involves features of regional speech. Variants associated with specific dialects
or accents are sometimes deemed incorrect when compared to the prestige dialect or standard
variety. For example, non-standard constructions like "we was" in certain English dialects
might be labeled incorrect. However, once these features are recognized as legitimate elements
of regional speech rather than deviations from the standard, the idea of correctness becomes
irrelevant. These features reflect linguistic diversity rather than linguistic errors.

In conclusion, the notion of correctness in language often reflects societal attitudes rather than
objective linguistic principles. Recognizing the validity of new elements, informal speech, and
regional variations helps to broaden our understanding of language as a dynamic and inclusive
system.