EVELYN HONE COLLEGE OF APPLIED ARTS AND COMMERCE

DEPARTMENT OF BUSSINES STUDIES

COMPUTER SECTION

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS NOTES

What is a Computer?
A computer is an electronic device that takes input data, processes it and produces an output
that could be understood.
Input data include numbers, text, sound, image, animations, video, etc.
Output are all numbers, text, sound, images, animations, and video returned as output are
called Information.
Processing of input data, involves converting it into meaningful information that could be
understood, presenting the changed input (processed input) as output.
Input is the raw data entered into the computer by using input devices.

Input Process Output

Numbers, Converts Information

text, sound, numbers, text, consists of
images, sound, numbers, text,
animations, images, sound, images,
and video animations, animations, etc
etc.. and video
The data is inserted into the computer using an input device, the central processing unit
(CPU) converts data to information and the information is put on an output device.

INPUT DEVICE CPU OUTPUT DEVICE

Parts of the Computer

The minimum requirements for a functional computer system include;

 a keyboard,
 a case/ housing containing a CPU and memory (although the case itself isn't strictly
necessary),
 and a monitor.
 Mouse
Functions of the digital Computer
Any digital computer carries out five functions:
1) Takes data as input
2) Stores data and instructions in its memory and uses them when required
3) Processes the data and converts it into useful information
4) Generates output
5) Controls all the above steps

Data Processing Cycle

Data processing is the re-structuring or re-ordering of data by people or machine to increase
their usefulness and add values for a particular purpose. Data processing consists of the
following basic steps - input, processing, and output. These three steps constitute the data
processing cycle.

PROCESSING

DATA INFORMATION

 Input − In this step, the input data is prepared in some convenient form for
processing. The form will depend on the processing machine

 Processing − In this step, the input data is changed to produce data in a more useful
form. For example, receipt can be calculated from the pay point transaction, or a
summary of sales for the month can be calculated from the sales orders.

 Output − At this stage, the result of the proceeding processing step is collected. The
particular form of the output data depends on the use of the data. For example, output
data may be receipt for customer.
Computer System

Definition: Collection of entities that work together to process and manage data to
information.
Elements of a Computer System

Hardware- Physical or tangible computer components e.g. keyboard, mouse etc.

Software- Programs installed.
Liveware- The computer user

Computer Components

A typical computer consists of HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE.

Hardware
Computer hardware is the collection of physical elements that constitutes a computer system.
It refers to the physical parts or components of a computer such as the monitor, mouse,
keyboard, computer data storage, hard drive disk (HDD), system unit (graphic cards, sound
cards, memory, motherboard and chips), etc.
Physical Parts or Physical components mean they are objects that can be touched.
The term "Hardware" refers to the physical elements of a computer; the machinery or the
electronics in a computer. A basic computer consists of 4 components:

1. Input device (or input unit)

2. CPU (Central Processing Unit)
3. Memory (or Memory unit)
4. Output device (Output unit)

Central Processing
INPUT DEVICE Unit OUTPUT DEVICE
(Data) (CPU) (Information)

MEMORY

DATA AND INFORMATION

It is important to understand the difference between "data" and "information" when
studying ICT. The study below outlines the main differences between data and information.

Data
Data can be referred to as “ Raw Material”. These are unorganized facts that need to be
processed. Data can be something simple and seemingly random and useless until it is
organized. Data relates also to transactions, events and facts. It needs to be processed before
it can be turned into something useful. Data is useless unless it is processed or has been made
into something. Data has no meaning when it has not been interpreted.

Information

INFORMATION is processed data which has some meaningful values for the receiver.
Information is the organized and classified data on which decisions and actions are based.
Information is processed data. The data that can be made useful is known as information.
Information is basically the data plus the meaning of what the data was collected for.
DATA does not depend upon information but information depends upon data. This is because
information cannot be generated without the help of data. Information is the meaning that has
been formed with the help of data and that meaning makes sense because of the data that has
been collected against the word.
Examples 1
Numbers: 09978355125, 1234, 21,
Words: Phone, number, Peter, Gender, Kalengule, Funda, Ndola, Street, Age
Symbols: #, =, +, (, /, %, $ etc.

Peter Kalengule
1234 Funda Street
Ndola
Phone # 09978355125
Age 21

Above is an address and details of an individual created from “data” which gives
“information” which can be understood and be used by humans.

Example 2
Think of the data that is created when you buy a product from a retailer. This includes;
 time and date of transaction (e.g. 10:05 Tuesday 23 December 20X3),
 transaction value (e.g. K55.00),
 facts about what was bought (e.g. hairdryer, cosmetics pack, shaving foam) and how
much was bought (quantities),
 how payment was made (e.g. credit card, credit card number and code),
 which employee recorded the sale

From the above, at its simplest, this data needs processing at the point of sale in order for the
customer to receive a valid receipt. When the data about the transaction is processed,
“information" is created in form of a “receipt”.
The receipt can then be used in presentation of different reports. For example, a report
showing totals sales in the day, or which are the best-selling products. Daily transactions in
the day can be captured, and then processed into a management report. These reports are
information.
Differences:
The major differences between data and information are:
 Data is the input language for a computer and information is the output language for
human
 Data is unprocessed facts or mere figures but information is processed data which has
been made sense of
 Data does not depend on information but information depends on data and without it,
information cannot be processed
 Data is not specific but information is specific enough to generate meaning.
 Data is the raw material that is collected but information is a detailed meaning
generated from the data.
 Data doesn’t depend on Information. Information depends on data.
 Data is a single unit. Information is a group of data.
 Data doesn’t carry a meaning. Information must carry a logical meaning.
 Data is the raw material. Information is the product

There’s a really simple way to understand the difference between data and information. When
we understand the primary function of the item we are looking at, we quickly see the
distinction between the two in ICT. Here’s a simple way to tell one from the other:

Computers need data. Humans need information.

Data is a building block. Information gives meaning and context.
Input Devices
In computing, an input device is a piece of computer hardware equipment used to provide
data and control signals to an information processing system such as:
 Computer
 Information appliance.
Input devices are used to enter data to a computer. The entered data then converted into
machine language so that a CPU understands the data or instruction comes through the input
devices
Audio input devices may be used for purposes including speech recognition. Many
companies are utilizing speech recognition to help assist users to use their device(s).
Functions of Input Devices
1) To provide data to a computer system
2) Control signals to a computer or other information appliance.
3) Translate data from form that humans understand to one that the computer can work
with.

Examples of Input Devices

1.Keyboard 8.Digital Camera 15.Magnetic Strip Controller

2.Mouse 9.Touchpad 16.Electnonic Whiteboard
 3.Joystick 10. Smart Card Reader 17.OCR
4.Touch Screen 11.Trackballs 18.Remote Control
5.Microphone 12.Digital Camera 19.Light Pens
6.Scanner 13.Barcode Reader 20.Paddle(game controller)
7.Webcam 14.OMR 21.MICR

Input devices can be categorized based on:

 Modality of input (e.g. mechanical motion, audio, visual, etc.).
 whether the input is discrete (e.g. pressing of key) or continuous (e.g. a mouse's
position, though digitized into a discrete quantity, is fast enough to be considered
continuous)
 the number of degrees of freedom involved (e.g. two-dimensional traditional mice,
or three-dimensional navigators designed for CAD applications

The Keyboard
The most common use keyboard is the QWERTY keyboard. Generally standard Keyboard
has 104 keys. It is one of the most important parts of a computer which is used to enter
commands, text, numerical data and other types of data by pressing the keys on the keyboard.

Keyboard

'Keyboards' are a human interface device which is represented as a layout of buttons. The
buttons are called KEYS. A user presses a key which transfers information to a computer.
A user talks with a computer through keyboard. The data which is entered via the keyboard
presented through a screen.

Types of keyboard

Computer keyboard comes in several type and variation, however, the basic elements
are the same in all keyboards.

The most common types include:

 101 or 102-Key enhanced keyboard (this is a popular type of keyboard now

used almost in all system units)
 104-Key Keyboard

Commonly, a keyboard layout type which is called QWERTY (takes its name from the
first six letters of the typing keys) is used widely for English language keyboard.
Basic Parts of the Keyboard:

Typing area

It looks and arranged like a traditional typewriter where you press alphabetic keys. It
holds alphabetic character such as letter, special characters and numbers. This is the
area you use mostly when you do word processing.

Function keys

The functions keys are located at the top of a keyboard and grouped into four. There
are 12 functions keys starting from F1 through F12. These keys are used for special
purposes and most programmers use these keys to do a specific task.

For example, if you are writing text with Microsoft Word;

Application Function Key Purpose

Microsoft F1 Display the Help
Word F5 Display Find and Replace dialogue
box
F12 Display Save As dialogue box
AutoCAD F2 display AutoCAD text window

These keys are used differently to carry out specific task depending on the type of
application one is running.

Numeric keypad

Numeric keypad is the other part of computer keyboard. Usually, it is located at the
right side of a keyboard. It is arranged like a standard calculator used to enter
numerical data.
It can also be used as directional keys. Pressing the Num Lock key above the numeric
keypad will tell whether the keys are on numeric or directional mode. If it is on, it is on
numeric mode and can enter numbers. If it is off, it is on directional mode and only
used for moving a cursor on screen UP, Down, Left or Right.

Cursor and monitor controls

These are keys found between the typing keypad and the numeric keypad. It has two
groups of keys, arranged top and bottom.

The top keys holds Insert, Home, Page Up, Page Down, Delete, and End keys.

Key Type Purpose

Insert switches between insert and overtype modes
Home key brings you back at the beginning of a page
Page Up help you to move one page or screen up
Page help you to move one page or screen down
Down
Delete erases a text or page
End Take cursor at the end of a page
Caps Lock Change case to Capital Letters when light is on
Print Save the current Window as an image
Screen

The bottom keys are independent directional keys, which let you to move the cursor
Left, Right, Up and Down.

Status lights, Escape key, Print Screen/SysRq, Scroll Lock, Pause/Break are used
for frequent functions.

NOTE: These are the parts found in standard computer keyboard and mostly used in
desktop computers.

Functions of Keyboard
The MAIN function of a keyboard in a Personal Computer (PC) is to operate the computer by
sending it data. This data often consists of characters, letters, numbers, line escapes etc,
Specific Functions
a. Input a linguistic character to a computer
b. To call upon a particular function of the computer.
c. Act as the main text entry interface
d. Communicate with the computer to perform function such as change the brightness,
or eject a disk from the disk drive.

A Computer Mouse
A mouse is a pointing device that allows a user to input spatial data to a computer by
detecting movement across a physical surface. It points and click on icons, menus, command
buttons or activates something on a computer.
Its name is derived from its shape, which looks a bit like a mouse; its connecting wire can be
imagined as the mouse's tail.
Mice contain at least one button and sometimes as many as three, which have different
functions depending on what program is running.

The Mouse

Pointing devices are input devices used to specify a position in space.

Classification of Pointing Devices
Pointing devices can be classified by:

 Whether the input is direct or indirect. With direct input, the input space coincides with
the display space, i.e. pointing is done in the space where visual feedback or
the pointer appears. Touchscreens and light pens involve direct input. Examples
involving indirect input include the mouse and trackball.
 Whether the positional information is absolute (e.g. on a touch screen) or relative (e.g.
with a mouse that can be lifted and repositioned)
For pointing devices, direct input is almost necessarily absolute, but indirect input may be
either absolute or relative. For example, digitizing graphics tablets that do not have an
embedded screen involve indirect input and sense absolute positions and are often run in an
absolute input mode, but they may also be set up to simulate a relative input mode like that of
a touchpad, where the stylus or puck can be lifted and repositioned.
Purpose of the Mouse

It moves a pointer on the screen, allowing the user to select icons, buttons, menus, and
other ‘screen objects’.

The buttons on the mouse exist to allow interaction with those objects. Some mice have only
one button — you may click an object to do one type of thing with it, double-click it to do
another, or click-and-drag to do a third.

Functions of Computer Mouse

 It is a device used for computer input.
 A computer mouse enables its user to move a cursor smoothly and intuitively
across a two-dimensional plane.
 Input device for selecting, dragging, hovering, and clicking.
 The mouse allows users to switch between applications
 Select options and buttons, and move around the screen with a great degree of
accuracy and fluidity.
 It is used to move between and select links on a website, buttons on an options
screen, and entries on a menu.
SCANNERS

Definition: A scanner is a device that captures images from photographic prints,

posters, magazine pages, and similar sources for computer editing and display.

It can also be defined as a device that takes a picture of an image that exists outside
the computer, such as a photograph or a drawing on paper.

Working Principle of the Scanner

As the scanner takes the picture, it digitizes the image (breaks it into dots that can be
recreated on the computer screen with electronic signals), and send this digital
information to the computer as a file. Then you can take this file of the scanned image
and use it to your work.

Types of Scanners

Scanners come in different varieties. The four common scanner types are: Flatbed, Sheet-fed,
Handheld, and Drum scanners.
1) Flatbed Scanners
A flatbed scanner is made up of a glass pane and a moving optical CIS or CCD (find meaning
of CIS& CCD for Glossary) array. The pane is illuminated with the help of bright light
planted underneath it.The image to be scanned is then placed on the glass pane. The sensor
and source of light move across the glass pane to scan the document and produce its digital
copy. Flatbed scanners derive their name from the fact that their glass plane or bed, where the
object to be scanned is placed, is flat. The flatbed scanner can scan any number of documents
with a click of a button.

Flatbed Scanners

2) Sheet-fed Scanner
As its name suggests, in this type of scanner, the document is fed into the horizontal or
vertical slot provided in it.
Components of a sheet-fed scanner include:
 The sheet-feeder,
 Scanning module
  Calibration sheet.
While the sensor and source of light move across the glass pane in flatbed scanners, in
sheet-fed scanners, they are stationary. Instead, the document moves through the
scanner.
Ideal for scanning single page documents. The main disadvantage is, these scanners
cannot scan thick objects, like books. The aforementioned scanner types are the most
common types of scanners used in homes and small offices.

Sheet-Fed Scanners

3) Handheld Scanner
A handheld scanner is a small wand-shaped scanning device which is moved slowly
(dragging it over the entire surface area of the document being scanned) over the object that
needs to be scanned. Handheld scanners are small in size. Their main advantage is that they
can scan items of any size. Main disadvantages are; often offer lower quality output
compared to flatbed and sheet-fed scanners. (Because they rely on steady hand and are
small). One of the most-utilized handheld scanner is the barcode scanner, typically used in
shopping stores to valuate goods.

Handheld Scanners

4) Drum Scanner
These types of scanners are used mainly for capturing a picture and producing at a very high
resolution rate. They use a photomultiplier tube (PMT) which are extremely sensitive to light
to scan images instead of the charge-coupled device that is typically used in a flatbed scanner.
The main advantage of drum scanners is their high resolution (opted for detailed scans).
Main disadvantage is that they are expensive to make and large size.
 Drum Scanners

Other Scanners

Many types of DEDICATED scanners are available and are being developed, you'll
need to pick which model best fits your needs.

Photo Scanner: As the name itself suggests, a photo scanner is mostly used to scan
photographs. It has high resolution and color depth, both of which are necessary for scanning
photographs. They are dedicated photo scanners. It's also worth noting that the It's also worth
noting that the in-built software in some photo scanners helps in cleaning and restoring old
photographs.
Portable Scanners: Portable scanner is designed to capture text and other data while you are
on the go. The scanner is powered by batteries and once you scan the text, the content is
stored on the portable scanner. The stored content can then be transferred to a computer later.
Transferring to your computer is done by using a cable or a wireless connection.

Portable Printer Scanner

Integrated Scanners: Integrated scanners are becoming one of the most modern types of
scanners when it comes to obtaining images. ATMs feature this type of built-in scanner for
check-processing and approval.
Production Scanners: These operate similar to flatbed scanners, but offer faster operation
and durability for high volume of work. They can scan multiple documents quickly. They are
usually used in large publishing companies and other business that need to scan numerous
documents daily.
Scanners usually come with software, such as Adobe’s Photoshop product, that lets one
resize and modify a captured image.

FUNCTIONS OF SCANNERS
The main functions and purposes of the scanner include:
1) Backup and Storage: By scanning paper files into a digital format and saving them
in multiple locations, eliminates the wastage of space of paper files while backing up
important documents.
 2) Transmitting to Colleagues and Customers: Scanners with network connectivity
can scan and e-mail documents in Microsoft Word or Adobe PDF format at the time
of scan i.e to employees .customers and other business contacts.

3) Intergrade with Software: Products such as Microsoft Office have built in functions
that that allow scanning information directly into document and spreadsheet files.

4) Digitization and Preservation: Scanners has ability to scan and save print photos
into digital formats such as JPEG or GIF. Digital cameras are available on devices
such as phones, tablets and portable video games devices and scanner applications are
now available which can be downloaded such as CAMSCANNER which can be used.

Scanners need software to get the job done. Various software give different kinds of options
such as dithering patterns, resolution, file formats etc and software is always supplied with
the scanner.

PRINTERS
Definitions:
1. A printer is a device that accepts text and graphic output from a computer and
transfers the information to paper, usually to standard size sheets of paper.
2. It can also be defined as an external output device that takes data from a computer and
generates output in the form of graphics / text on a paper.
3. A printer is an output device that prints characters, symbols, and perhaps graphics on
paper. The printed output is generally referred to as hardcopy because it is in
relatively permanent form.

Categorization of Printers

Printers are in two categories.

I. Impact printers have their image produced by physical contact of the print
mechanism with the paper.
II. Non-impact printers produce images which do not have physical impact mechanism
with paper

Printers vary in size, speed, sophistication, and cost. In general, more expensive printers are
used for higher-resolution color printing.

Printer Qualities (CONSIDARATION FOR PURCHASING A PRINTER)

There are four main printer qualities which are of most interest to users:

 Color: Color is important for users who need to print pages for presentations or maps
and other pages where color is part of the information. Color printers can also be set
to print only in black-and-white. Color printers are more expensive to operate since
they use two ink cartridges (one color and one black ink) that need to be replaced after
a certain number of pages. Users who don't have a specific need for color and who
print a lot of pages will find a black-and-white printer cheaper to operate.
  Resolution: Printer resolution (the sharpness of text and images on paper) is usually
measured in dots per inch (dpi). Most inexpensive printers provide sufficient
resolution for most purposes at 600 dpi.
 Speed: If you do much printing, the speed of the printer becomes important.
Inexpensive printers print only about 3 to 6 sheets per minute. Color printing is
slower. More expensive printers are much faster.
 Memory: Most printers come with a small amount of memory (for example,
one megabyte) that can be expanded by the user. Having more than the minimum
amount of memory is helpful and faster when printing out pages with large images or
tables with lines around them (which the printer treats as a large image

Printer Languages

Printer languages are commands from the computer to the printer to tell the printer how to
format the document being printed. These commands manage font size, graphics,
compression of data sent to the printer, color, etc. The two most popular printer languages
are Postscript and Printer Control Language

Printer Command Language (PCL)

PCL (Printer Command Language) is an escape code language used to send commands to the
printer for printing documents.

Printer Fonts

A font is a set of characters of a specific style and size within an overall typeface design.
Printers use resident fonts and soft fonts to print documents.

Resident fonts are also called internal fonts built into the hardware of a printer.

Soft fonts are installed onto the hard drive and then sent to the computer's memory when a
document is printed that uses the particular soft font.

All printers come with one or more resident fonts. Additional fonts can be added by inserting
a font cartridge into the printer or installing soft fonts to the hard drive. Resident fonts cannot
be erased unlike soft fonts. Soft fonts can be purchased in stores or downloaded from the
Internet.

Output Devices
Output refers to the information that a computer or device displays, prints, or transmits to
another device. It can be in the form of text, graphics, images, sound, or video.
Output devices include;
 Monitors
 Printers
 Speakers
 Multimedia projectors and more.

Types of Printers
Personal computer printers can be distinguished as impact or non-impact printers.

Impact Printers
An impact printer makes contact with the paper. It usually forms the print image by pressing
an inked ribbon against the paper using a hammer or pins. The mechanism resembles those of
a printer.
Following are some examples of impact printers.
Dot-Matrix Printers
The dot-matrix printer uses print heads containing from 9 to 24 pins. These pins produce
patterns of dots on the paper to form the individual characters. The 24 pin dot-matrix printer
produces more dots that a 9 pin dot-matrix printer, which results in much better quality and
clearer characters. The general rule is: the more pins, the clearer the letters on the paper.
Daisy-wheel printers
A type of printer that produces letter-quality type found on the typewriters. It is a serial
printer. A daisy-wheel is a disk made of plastic or metal on which characters stand out in
relief along the outer edge. To printer a character, the printer rotates the disk until the desired
letter is facing the paper. Then a hammer strikes the disk, forcing character to hit an ink
ribbon, leaving an impression of the character on the paper. A daisy wheel can be changed to
print different fonts.
This printer cannot print graphics and are slow and noise.
Line printers

Line printers, or line-at-a-time printers, use special mechanism that can print a whole line at
once. They can print an entire line at one time.

Disadvantages

 Cannot print graphics

 Low quality of print
 Very noise
Drum printer
A drum printer consists of a solid, cylindrical drum that has raised characters in bands on its
surface. The drum rotates at a rapid speed. For each possible print position there is a print
hammer located behind the paper. These hammers strike the paper, along the ink ribbon,
against the proper character on the drum as it passes. This means that all characters on the
line are not printed at exactly the same time, but the time required to print the entire line is
fast enough to call them line printers.
Chain printers
It is a character printer. A chain printer uses a chain of print characters wrapped around two
pulleys. They have one hammer for each print position. The hammer then strikes the page,
Non-impact printers
Non-impact printers do not use a striking device to produce characters on the paper. Non-
impact printers form characters and images without direct physical contact between the
printing mechanism and paper.
Two types of non-impact printers often used with microcomputers are:
 Laser printers
 Ink-jet printers
Laser Printers
A laser printer works like a photocopy machine. It creates Images with dots on the drum
treated with magnetically charged ink-like toner(powder), and then transferred from drum to
paper. Laser printers produce images on paper by directing a laser beam at a mirror which
bounces the beam onto a drum. Using patterns of small dots, a laser beam conveys
information from the computer to a positively charged drum to become neutralized. They
have inbuilt RAM chips to store documents output from the computer. They also have their
own ROM chips to store fonts and a dedicated small processor.
Ink-jet printers
Ink-jet printers work in the same fashion as dot-matrix printers in the form images or
characters with little dots. However, the dots are formed by tiny droplets of ink. Ink-jet
printers form characters on paper by spraying ink from tiny nozzles through an electrical field
that arranges the charged ink particles into characters. The ink is absorbed into the paper and
dries instantly. Various colors of ink can also be used. These printers produce less noise and
print in better quality with greater speed.
Advantages of Laser Printer
 The main advantage of Laser printer is its speed & efficiency at which it prints high-
quality quality graphics & text.
 Laser printers produce high-quality output as compared to other printers.
 Laser printers are quite and does not produce disturbing sounds.
 They are also capable to produce color prints.
Disadvantages of Laser Printer
 The main disadvantage of Laser printer is its cost, they are relatively costly as
compared to other printers.
 The maintenance, repair & servicing charges are also high of these printers.
 Laser printers emit small amount of ozone and are hazardous to health and the
atmosphere.
Comparison between Dot Matrix Printers and Laser Printers

Print Quality
Typical laser printers have high resolution by use of microscopic tonner powder, high
performance electronic and precision optics. Dot matrix printers output color depends on
ribbon virtually none offer choices beyond black and red.
Speed
Laser printers print at higher rate per minute than dot matrix printers.
Noise
Laser printers are quite by comparison to dot matrix printers.
Cost

Laser and dot matrix printers have roughly comparable initial purchase prices. Dot matrix
printers use inexpensive ribbons and have little other maintenance. Tonner cartridges used for
printing figure heavily into operating costs.

MONITOR
A computer monitor is the most commonly used graphical output device, for the information
processed by the CPU. It is a display output device for desk top PC. It presents output
visually on computer screen. The output appears temporarily on the screen and can easily be
altered or erased, it is sometimes referred to as soft copy .
With all-in-one PCs, notebook computers, hand held PCs and other devices; the term display
screen is used for the display device.
The display devices are also used in home entertainment systems, mobile systems, cameras
and video games.

CRT Computer Monitor LCD, SyncMaster 710

Types of Monitors
There are 2 types of monitors, they are;
Monochrome: actually display two colors, one for the foreground and one for the
background. The colors can be black and white, green and black, or amber and black. A
monochrome monitor is a type of CRT (cathode ray tube) .The CRT use cathode-ray-tube
technology to display images, so they are large, bulky and heavy like conventional or old
televisions.
Colored Monitors: is a display device capable of displaying many colors. The Color
monitors are sometimes called RGB monitors, because they accept three separate signals red,
green, and blue. Color monitors implement the RGB color model by using three different
phosphors that appear red, green, and blue when activated. Color monitors can create an
unlimited number of colors.

Now, moving ahead from types of display to the technology they possess, we have many
kinds of monitors lined up. Some of those are: monitors, FT, flat, LCD (Liquid Crystal
Display),OLED,LED, etc..
THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

Definitions:

1)The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the brain of a computer. It processes instructions
from programs and performs calculations necessary to run applications and the operating
system.

2) The is the essential and fundamental part of computer system, where all the arithmetic and
logical calculation takes place by interpreting, translating and carrying out the instructions for
operating a computer as a device.

3) It is a part of the computer that performs the basic arithmetical, logical, and input/output
operations of the system.

The Central Processing Unit and additionally called as Microprocessor or Microchip in short
refers to CPU.

In other words the set of instructions or data are introduced to the PC system in form of raw
data through input devices of computer, and later this instruction are processed or prepared to
get desired or wanted result. The set of instructions it interprets and translates is called a
computer program.
The CPU plays a role somewhat analogous to the brain in the computer.
The central processing unit, or processor, is the component of a computer that performs
processes.

Main Components of a CPU

1. Control Unit (CU) – Directs the operation of the processor by fetching, decoding,
and executing instructions.

This unit controls and facilitates all the activities and operations performed in a PC system.
It gets programs from the main memory of computer system interprets or translate them and
control other unit to get desired result.

2. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) – Performs mathematical calculations and logical

operations.

ALU perform all the arithmetic and logic calculation provided to computer systems that are
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, comparison, greater, less.

3. Registers – Small, fast storage locations inside the CPU that hold temporary data.
4. Cache Memory – High-speed memory that stores frequently used data to improve
performance.

Cache memory dwells between main memory and processor. The cache memory saves and
holds the data or set of information which is about to process immediately by system. The
cache memory is not available to users hence they cannot delete, update, refresh the
programs inside the memory, the manufacturer or the computer programmers can erase or
update the data which is stored inside the cache memory

5. Clock – Determines the speed at which the CPU executes instructions, measured in
GHz.

The processor speed can be defined and characterized as the speed at which it executes the
instructions and directions. The speed of processor is measured in MHz (Millions of Pulses
for each second) and GHz (Billion of pulses for each second)

The speed of mini and mainframe computers is measured in MIPS (Millions of instructions
per second) and BIPS (Billions of instructions per second).

Primary Functions of Processor

1. Fetch – Retrieves instructions from memory.

Every instruction and data is stored in memory with a specific address. The processor gets the
address number from program counter this is done for executing next instruction quickly.

2. Decode – Interprets the instruction.

This process of conversion and transformation from one language to another is called as
decoding which helps the computer system to deliver the output in human readable or
intelligent form. All the programs or instructions are translated from assembly language or
low level to binary language (0s and 1s).

3. Execute – Carries out the instruction.

Processor recovers the instructions and data from memory and processes them to get
wanted output with the assistance of ALU (Arithmetic and coherent unit).

4. Store – Writes back the result if necessary.

After the procedure is finished in ALU. The output is put away in memory for additionally
processing.

Functions of CPU in Computer

The CPU Is considered as the brain or heart of the computer as:

 it is responsible for each and every operation performed in a computer system.
 It controls and organizes every section and unit of a Personal Computer.
 It processes data and controls all computer operations

Types of CPUs

 Single-core – One processing unit.

 Multi-core (Dual-core, Quad-core, etc.) – Multiple processing units for better
performance.
  Hyper-Threading – Allows one physical core to handle multiple threads
simultaneously.

Factors Affecting CPU Performance

 Clock Speed (GHz) – Faster speeds mean more instructions per second.
 Number of Cores – More cores allow parallel processing.
 Cache Size – Larger cache speeds up processing.
 Architecture – Newer architectures are more efficient.

Central Processing Unit [Microprocessor]

Top view Bottom View

The processor or CPU are installed on motherboard or mainboard and they are typically
square shaped as shown above. Most processor nowadays are multicore processors
COMPUTER SOFTWARE.
SOFTWARE

Software consists of all the electronic instructions that tell the hardware how to perform a
task. Software are commonly known as programs or applications that must be accepted by the
operating system and CPU that they are based on.
Definitions
a) Computer Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-
defined function. A program is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular
problem
b) Computer software, or simply software, is a collection of data or computer
instructions that tell the computer how to work.
c) Computer software can be defined as a set of instructions or collection of programs
which are designed and developed to perform specific tasks
Main Function of Software
The main functions of Software is to:
1. Enable computer hardware to perform specific tasks.
2. Enables the user to tailor a computer system to provide specific business value.
There are two types of software −

 System Software
 Application Software
System Software
Definitions
A) System software is a type of software that manages hardware and provides a
platform for application software. It serves as the interface between the hardware and
end users.
B) Systems software is a set of instructions that serves primarily as an intermediary
between computer hardware and application programs, and may also be directly
manipulated by knowledgeable users.
C) Systems software is the class of programs that control and support the computer
system and its information-processing activities.
Hardware

System
Software

Application
Software

Systems software serves as intermediary between hardware and functional applications

Characteristics of System Software:

1. Hardware-Oriented – System software interacts directly with the computer

hardware and controls its functions.
2. Low-Level Programming – Often written in low-level languages (e.g., Assembly, C)
to ensure efficient interaction with hardware.
3. General-Purpose – Unlike application software, system software is not task-specific
but provides a platform for various applications.
4. Automatic Execution – Runs in the background and starts automatically when the
computer boots up.
5. Efficient Resource Management – Manages CPU, memory, storage, and peripheral
devices to optimize performance.
6. Multi-User and Multitasking Support – Supports multiple users and allows
simultaneous execution of multiple tasks.
7. Security and Protection – Implements security measures such as access control,
authentication, and encryption to protect system integrity.
8. Fast and Reliable – Designed for high performance, stability, and minimal errors to
keep the system running smoothly.
9. Upgradable – Can be updated or patched to fix bugs, improve performance, and add
new features.
10. Essential for System Operation – Without system software, the computer hardware
cannot function properly.

Examples of System Software

 Operating Systems (Windows, Linux, macOS)

 Utility Programs (Antivirus, File Management Tools)
 Device Drivers (Printer, Graphics Card Drivers)
 Firmware (BIOS, UEFI)

MAIN FUNCTIONS OF SYSTEM SOFTWARE

1)Operating System Management

 Controls hardware resources (CPU, memory, storage, etc.).

 Manages processes and multitasking to run multiple programs at once.
 Handles user interaction through GUI or CLI.
 Example: Windows, Linux, macOS.

2) File and Disk Management

 Manages files and directories (creating, deleting, organizing).

 Controls disk storage allocation and optimizes read/write performance.
 Provides file system support.
 Example: Windows File Explorer, Linux File System
3) Device Management
  Controls and communicates with hardware devices like printers, keyboards, and
USBs.
 Uses device drivers to enable software-hardware interaction.
 Example: Printer driver, graphics driver.
4)Security and Protection

 Manages user authentication (login credentials, encryption).

 Protects against malware and unauthorized access.
 Provides firewall and antivirus support.
 Example: Windows Defender, Linux security features
5)Memory Management

 Allocates and deallocates memory for running programs.

 Uses virtual memory to extend RAM when needed.
 Prevents memory leaks and crashes.
 Example: Windows Task Manager, Linux Swap Memory.
6)Program Execution and Process Management
 Loads, runs, and terminates programs.
 Manages CPU scheduling to allocate processing power efficiently.
 Example: Task Manager in Windows, Activity Monitor in macOS.

7) Networking and Communication

 Manages internet and network connections.

 Controls data transfer between systems.
 Provides network security (firewall, VPN support).
 Example: TCP/IP protocol in Windows/Linux, Wi-Fi settings.
8)System Utilities and Maintenance
 Performs system diagnostics to check for errors.
 Optimizes system performance (disk cleanup, defragmentation).
 Example: Windows Disk Cleanup, macOS Disk Utility.

9) Programming Support (Compilers, Interpreters, Assemblers)

 Helps developers translate code into machine language.

 Provides tools for debugging and optimization.
 Example: GCC (C compiler), Python interpreter.

10)User Interface Management

 Provides GUI (Graphical User Interface) or CLI (Command Line Interface).

 Ensures smooth interaction between users and system functions.
 Example: Windows Desktop UI, Linux Terminal.
 1. to helps run computer hardware and computer system.
2. provides important self-regulatory functions for computer systems, such as loading
itself when the computer is first turned on,
3. managing hardware resources such as secondary storage for all applications,
4. providing commonly used sets of instructions for all applications to use
5. Systems software also facilitates the programming, testing, and debugging of
computer programs
6. support application software by directing the basic functions of the computer, for
example: Initialization of all devices for processing when computer is turned on.

NOTE: These software products comprise of programs written in low-level languages,

which interact with the hardware at a very basic level.
Computer software needs hardware to function properly.

Example 1 A Hard disk drive is a hardware device of a computer system which saves or
stores information, programs or data in high volumes but it cannot work in absence of
software programs. The software helps hardware to run and vice versa.

Example 2 If you have installed a sound card on your computer system which is used for
playing sound, videos, and also used for playing games, but you cannot hear any sound
without proper driver installation that is software which activates the hardware to function
properly. Drivers are system software program which comes with the hardware.
So we can say that to use full features of hardware and software they are dependent on each
other both plays vital role in each other functions. They are independent devices and
programs but rely heavily on each other.

Features of System Software

Here is a list of some of the most prominent:

 Closed systems
 Fast in speed
 Difficult to design
 Difficult to understand
 Less interactive
 Smaller in size
 Difficult to manipulate
 Generally written in low-level language
Examples of System Software
 Operating System
 Compilers
 Interpreter
 Assemblers
 Device drivers etc.
The Operating System

Def: Operating systems (OS) manage hardware resources and provide a platform for running
applications. They can be categorized based on their usage, such as desktop, mobile, server,
and real-time OS.

Main Functions of OS
:
1. Operation Scheduling: which include the input and output processes
2. Time Allocation: CPU time and main memory to programs running on the computer,
3. Interface between the user and the hardware(Machine) : This interface can be a
graphical user interface (GUI) in which users click onscreen elements to interact with
the OS or a command-line interface (CLI) in which users type commands at the
command-line interface (CLI) to tell the OS to do things
4. Coordinate hardware components: An OS enables coordination of hardware
components. through translational softwires called device drivers. These drivers make
the communication successful between the other software and the hardware as
different hardware components have different drivers.
5. Provide environment for software to function: An OS provides an environment for
applications software to function. These application software are specific software
which is used to perform specific task. For example, Spreadsheets.
6. Provide structure for Data management: An OS displays structure/directories for
data management. We can view file and folder listings and manipulate on those files
and folders like (move, copy, rename, delete, as well as provides services that include
process management, virtual memory, file management, security, fault tolerance, and
the user interface).
7. Monitor system health and functionality: OS monitors the health of the system’s
hardware, giving an idea of how well (or not) it’s performing. It shows how busy the
CPU is, or how quickly the hard drives retrieve data, or how much data the network
card is sending etc. and it also monitors system activity for malware (Virus Activity).

Classification of Operating systems

• Multi-user: Allows two or more users to run programs at the same time. Some
operating systems permit hundreds or even thousands of concurrent users.
• Multiprocessing: Supports running a program on more than one CPU.
• Multitasking : Allows more than one program to run concurrently
 Single-tasking system: can only run one program at a time
• Multithreading: Allows different parts of a single program to run concurrently.
• Real time: Responds to input instantly. General-purpose operating systems, such as
DOS and UNIX, are not real-time.
• Distributed OS: manages a group of distinct computers and makes them appear to be
a single computer( networked computers) When computers in a group work in
cooperation, they form a distributed system
• Templated: refers to creating a single virtual machine image as a guest operating
system, then saving it as a tool for multiple running virtual machines. Technique used
both in virtualization and cloud computing management and common in large
servers.
 • Embedded OS: They are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They
are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy which are
in embedded computer systems .Examples are Windows CE and Minix 3

Examples of Operating Systems

1. Desktop and Laptop Operating Systems: Used in personal computers and workstations.

 Windows OS – Microsoft Windows 10, Windows 11

 macOS – macOS Ventura, macOS Sonoma (Apple)
 Linux Distributions – Ubuntu, Fedora, Debian, Arch Linux
 UNIX
 Java operating system (JavaOS)

2. Mobile Operating Systems: Designed for smartphones and tablets.

 Android – Used in Samsung, OnePlus, and Google Pixel phones.

 iOS – Apple's mobile OS for iPhones and iPads.

3. Server Operating Systems: Used in servers to manage network resources and

applications, such as:

 Windows Server
 Linux Server Distributions
 Ubuntu Server
 Unix-based OS

4. Real-Time Operating Systems (RTOS): Used in embedded systems where real-time

processing is critical.

 Used in aerospace and defence.

 Used in automotive and industrial applications.

5. Specialized Operating Systems: Used for specific purposes.

 Google's lightweight OS for Chromebooks.

 Used in Samsung smartwatches and smart TVs.
 In smart appliances, cameras, and routers.

Application Software
Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular
environment. Application software may consist of a single or more tasks, such as Microsoft's
notepad for writing and editing a simple text, internet browsing. It may also consist of a
collection of programs, often called a software package, which work together to accomplish
a task, such as a spreadsheet package.
Application software can be off-the-shelf application software or can be developed in-house
by the organization’s information systems personnel or it may be commissioned from a
software vendor. Off-the-shelf application software can be purchased, leased, or rented
from a vendor that develops programs and sells them to many organizations. Off-the-shelf
software may be a standard package or it may be customizable. Special purpose programs or
“packages” can be tailored for a specific purpose, such as inventory control or payroll.

Purpose of Application Software

Application software are designed:

 To make users more productive and/or assist with personal tasks.
 To make business activities more efficient
 To assist with graphics and multimedia projects
 To support home, personal, and educational tasks
 To facilitate communications

Functions of Application Software

Application software programs are created to facilitate a variety of functions, including but
not limited to:
 managing information
 manipulating data
 constructing visuals
 coordinating resources
 calculating figures

Features of Application Software

a) Closer to the user b) Easy to design
c)More interactive d) Slow in speed
e) Generally written in high-level language f) Easy to understand (User Friendly)
g) Easy to manipulate and use h) Bigger in size and requires large storage
space
Examples of Application software
Payroll Software MS Office CorelDraw X6 Skype Photoshop
Suite
Student Record MS Word CorelCAPTURE MS Access Whatsapp
Software X6
Inventory Management MS Excel LogoDesignShop Internet FB
Software browsers
Income Tax Software MS CorelDraw X6 Railways ZOOM
PowerPoint Reservation
Software

Categories of Application Software

There are four main categories:
Business Graphics and Multimedia Home/Personal/
Word Processing
Educational
Computer Aided Design(CAD)
Databases Software suite
Desktop Publishing
Spreedsheet Paint/Image Editing personal Finance
Presentation ( for professionals) Legal
Note writing Photo Editing Desktop Publishing
Project Management (for professinals) Paint/Image Editing
Accounting Video and Audio Editing Photo Editing
Business Software Suiite Multimedia Authouring Video & Audio Editing
Businees software for phones Web Page Authouring Home Design/Landscaping
Enterprise Computing
Travel & Mapping
Reference & Educational
Entertainment
Art Gallary

Communication
Web browser,E-Mail, Blogging,Chat Room, Text, Video Audio Massaging, Video Conferencing,
Instant Massaging, Newsgroup/Massage Board, RSS Aggregator,FTP, VoIP

STORAGE MEDIA
This is any technology including devices and materials -- used to place, keep(store) and
retrieve electronic data. It refers to a physical device or component in a computing system
that receives and stores information.

The computer memory can be classified in Four different types ::

 Internal Processor Memory
 Main memory | RAM (Random Access Memory)|Primary Memory
 Cache Memory
 Storage | Secondary Memory
Types of Storage Media
The term storage encompasses all data, and can be either primary or secondary storage.
Primary storage refers to data that is kept in memory for fast retrieval by a computer's
processor. This storage is internal to the computer for example the Hard dive.
Secondary storage is data placed on hard disk or tape to ensure backup and long-term
retention. This is usually external to the computer, for example the external Hard drive or
Compact Disc(CD).

PRIMARY STORAGE
This is also known as main memory.
Main memory is directly or indirectly connected to the central processing unit via a memory
bus.
The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them as required.
Example:
 RAM
 ROM
 Cache

RAM
The RAM is known as “Random Access Memory”. This is a volatile memory that means it
cannot store or savethe data or instruction or set of information once the power is off.
It is called Random Access Memory because any of the data in RAM can be accessed fast as
any other data.
There are two types of RAM:
 DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)
 SRAM (Static Random Access Memory
Comparisons
Static RAM Dynamic RAM
 Faster  Slower
 More Expensive  Less Expensive
 More Power Consumption  Less Power Consumption
 Does not need to be refreshed  Needs to be refreshed thousands of times per second

ROM
ROM memory cannot be easily or quickly overwritten or modified.
 This memory is used as the computer begins to boot up.
 Small programs called firmware are often stored in ROM chips on hardware devices
and they contain instructions the computer can use in performing some of the most
basic operations required to operate hardware devices

ROM are of different Types:

 PROM
 EPROM
 EEPROM
1) PROM stands for “Programmable Read Only Memory” it is also a type of non-volatile
memory .which once programmed or customized then the set of instruction or information
Stored cannot be deleted or updated or refreshed.
2) EPROM stands for “Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory” as the name
suggest the programs which had been written and composed by computer programmers can
be Deleted or updated or changed according to the necessities.
3) EEPROMS stands for “Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory” to erase
or delete the information or data inside them one should take the memory outside the PCB
(Printed Circuit Board

CACHE
Cache memory dwells between primary memory and CPU [Central Processing Unit].
Disadvantage: It is extremely expensive therefore manufacturer uses it in low numbers.
Advantages:
They are:
 Fast
 Reliable
 High-speed semiconductors.

Secondary Storage

This is also called as “Auxiliary Memory”. They are also called as “Permanent
Memory” as they are non-volatile in nature. The data stored in them is stored permanently
and the user can get access to their data any time user requests. If the power is off they still
don’t lose the data because of its non-volatile nature.

Advantages and Disadvantages

 They are slowest and the least expensive type of PC memory as they can't directly and
straightforwardly get access to CPU.
 They utilize the primary memory for storing and holding their information partially.
 They can stores large volumes of data permanently, and whenever the computer
system requires the data it can be served to primary memory for advance processing

Hand-Disk
A hard disk provides a high-capacity storage platform. It contains metal platters coated with a
magnetic layer. The hard disk is also called fixed disk.

Characteristics of Hard Disk Drive

 The storage capacity of hard disk is much greater
 It contains one or more metal platters coated with a magnetic layer.
 Hard disk is covered in a hard jacket and there are less chances of disk damage due to
dust and mishandling.
 The plates are fixed in the drive
 Data is stored in sectors. Each sector can store 512 bytes
 Has motor that rotates the disk
USES
 Operating system and application programs are installed on hard disk.
Before using a magnetic disk we use operating system to format the disk.
 Operating system divides the disk into circles called tracks. Each track is divided into
pie-shaped areas called sectors..
 The Computer Hard Disk used as a memory has the capabilities for storing volumes of
data such as songs, movies, pictures, software’s one can easily get access to this data
whenever or wherever user demands.
 Users can be rest a sure of their data, as the data is stored almost permanently.

Comparisons of Internal Hard Disk and External Hard Disk

 Internal Hard Disk External Hard Disk
Portability No Yes
Price Less Expensive More Expensive
Speed Fast Slow
Size Big Small

Tertiary Storage
Typically it involves a robotic mechanism which will mount (insert) and dismount removable
mass storage media into a storage device.

It is a comprehensive computer storage system that is usually very slow, so it is usually used
to archive data that is not accessed frequently.

This is primarily useful for extraordinarily large data stores, accessed without human
operators
Examples:
a)MagneticTape

b)Optical Disc

Magnetic Tape

 A magnetically coated strip of plastic on which data can be encoded.

 Tapes for computers are similar to tapes used to store music.
 Tape is much less expensive than other storage mediums but commonly a much
slower solution that is commonly used for backup.

Optical Disc

Optical disc is any storage media that holds content in digital form at and is read using a laser
assembly is considered optical media.

The most common types of optical media are:

• Blu-ray (BD)
• Compact Disc (CD)
• Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)

AUXILLARY STORAGE (Secondary Storage)

Also known as disconnected storage.
Is a computer data storage on a medium or a device that is not under the control of a
processing unit.
It must be inserted or connected by a human operator before a computer can access it again
Examples:
• Floppy Disk
• Zip diskette
• USB Flash drive
• Memory card
• Solid State Drive(SSD)
• Hard Disk Drive(HDD)
• Cloud storage eg Google drive, Dropbox