Sec. 1.

6 Basic System Properties 47

the systern output doecs not anticipate futuwe values of the input. Consequendy, if two inputs
to a causal systern are identical up to some point in time to or nÍ, the corresponding outputs
must also be equal up to this same time. The RC circuit of Figure 1.1 is causal, since
the capacitor voltage responds only to the present and past values of the source voltage
Similarly, the motion of an automobile is causal, since it does not anicipate future actions
of the driver. The systems described in eqs. (1.92) -(1.94) are also causal. bur the systems
defined by
yfn] = xin] - x[n + 1] (|.J02)
and

y() = x(t + 1) (1.103)

are nol. All memoryless systens are causal, since the output responds only to the current
value of the ioput.
Although cavsal systems are of greatimportance, they do not by any means constitute
the only systens that are of practical significance. For example, causality is rot often an
essential constraint in applications in which the independent variable is not time, such as in
image processing. Furthermore, in processing data tbat have bees recorded previously, as
often happens with speech, geophysical, or meteorological signals, to name a few, we are
by no means consraiped to causal processing. As another example, in many applications,
including historical stock market analysis and demographic studies, we may be interested
in determining a slowly varying trend in data that also contain high-frequency luctuations
about that trend. In this case, acommonly used approach is to average data over an interval
in order to smooth out the fluctuations and keep only the trend. An example ofa noncausa)
averaging system is

(1.104)

Example 1.12
When checking the causality of a system, it s important to look carefully at the input
trelation. To illustrate some of the issues involved in doing this, we will check the
causality of two particular systens.
The frst system is defined by
y[n] x[-). (1.105)
Note that the output y[no] at a positive time no depends only on the value of he input
signal x[-no] at time (-no), wbich is negative and therefore in the past of n%. We may
bc tempted to conclude at this point that the given system is causal. However, we should
always be careful to check the nput-output relation for all times. ht particular, for n <0,
.g. n = -4, we see that y[-4] = x4], so that the output at this tícne depends on a future
value of the nput. Hence, theesystem is not causal
It is also important to distnguish carefully the cffects of the input from those of
any other functions used in the definiäon of the system. For example, consider the system
y) = x) cos(r + 1). (I.106)

4£ Signals and Systems Chap. 1

La this system, the vutput at ay tise t equals the isput at that same time mutipled by
number that vanes wich time. Spec1fhcally, we can ewnte eq. (1.106) as
X) - x()g).
where g(t) is a time-varying function, oamely g(r) cos(r + 1). Thus, only the curent
value of the input rt) influences the curent value of the output y(/). and we conclude
that this system is causal (and, in fact, memoryless).

1.6.4 Stability
Stability s another important system property. Informally. a stable system is one in which
small inputs lead to responses that do not diverge. For example, consider the pendulurn in
Figure 1.46(a), in which the input is the applied force x(i) and the output is the angular
deviation y() from the vertical. In this case, gravity appies a restoring force that tends
to retum the perndulun to the vertical position, and frictional Jasses due to drag end to
slow it down. Consequently, if a small force x() is applied, the resulting deflection from
vertical will also be small. In contrast, for the inverted pendulum in Figure I.46(b), che
cffect of gravity is to apply a force that tends to increase the deviation from vertical. Thus.
a small applicd force leads to a large vertical defiection causing the pendulum to topple
 49
Sec. 1.6 Bassc System Properttes
systems
There are also numerous examplesmechanisms of stable systemns. Stability of physical
presence of that dissipate encrgy. For example,
generally results from the
simple RC circuit of Example 1.8, the resistor
component values m the is also
assuming positive circu1t is a stabie system. The system in Example 19
dissipates energy and this friction.
dissipation of energy hrough che concept
stable because of the examples provide us wih an intuitive understanding of magnitude
The preceding if its
is bounded (i.e., therefore
More formally, if the input to a stable system be bounded and cannot
of stahility. bound), then the output must also book. For exam
docs not grow without stability that we will use throughopt this Figure 1 2, with the
definition of
diverge. This is the force f() = Fto the automobile in
increase, but not without
applying a constant velocity of the car will
plc, consider
at rest. In this case the ases with velocity. En fact, the velocicy
vehicle initially fricional force also incre
the applied force:
so,
the retarding force exactly balances
bound, since frictional sar1sfy
contunuc to increase until the velocity value V must
wi!ll see that this terminal
frm eq. (1.84), we (1.107)

1 108)
i.e.,

defined by cy. (1.1041, and

discrete-tine systemnumber, say, B, for all values
is the average
the
exanple, conside by some
As another bOunded in magnitude also B, because y[n] system is stable.
input n]is magnitude for y[w] is bounded and the
the
Supposethat largest possible Mn] is Unlike the system
the input. Therefore, (1.92).
eq. rather than just a finite
of n. Thenset of values of the accumulator described by input x[n]
of a finite consider the past values of thegrow contioually even ifoutput
hand, the
all of the sumcan a unit step [n], the
On the other this system sumsunstable, sinceaccumulator
(1.104), system is is
in cq. and the snput t0 the
valucs, example, if tbe
set of For
is bounded. )uln].
will be
u[k] (n +
y{n] without bound.
grows
on, and y[nl
3, and so
y[l]=2,y[2] = look for
l, ths1S toexample
Thatis, y[O] stratcgy to
verify
onesuch
Example 1.13 unstable,thea a useful outpuc. Fundingexampledoes not
unbounded an does not
that asystemis
leads to an uostable Ifsuch method thatcheckthe
suspect that is
systenstabilicyby using a
If we boundedsnputthat the given approach. let us
specific conclude check for illustratethis
a lo
cnables usdifficulr we must To
to find, iput signals. (1.109)
or is examples of
exist specific
Dtilize systems, Si: y() ix()
stabilityoftwo