NEW

NOTES

pg. 1 Eng. Ali Hesham

 CHAPTER 1
Types & components of a computer system
Hardware and software

Hardware

is the general term for the physical components that make up a typical computer system

Hardware falls into two categories: internal and external

INTERNAL HARDWARE

» motherboard
» central processing unit (CPU)/processor
» random access memory (RAM)
» read-only memory (ROM)
» graphics card
» sound card
» network interface card (NIC)
» internal storage devices (hard disk drive and solid-state drive).

It is a printed circuit board found in all computers. It allows the processor

Motherboard and other computer hardware to function and communicate with each
other.
Allows the computer to send graphical information to a video display
graphics card
device. It is also can be connected to the Motherboard.
is an integrated circuit board that provides a computer with the ability to
Sound Card
produce sounds
Network interface card is a component that allows a computer or any other device (for example,
(NIC) a printer) to be connected to a network
Random access memory is an internal chip where data is temporarily stored when running
(RAM) applications
Read-only memory (ROM) is a memory used to store information that needs to be permanent
Central processing unit is an electronic circuit board in a computer that can execute instructions
(CPU)/processor from a computer program.

pg. 2 Eng. Ali Hesham

Software
is the general term used for the programs that control the computer system and process data

software falls into two categories: application and system

Application software vs System Software:

Application software System software

Applications software provides the services that is the software designed to provide a platform on
the user requires to solve a given task which all other software can run
» word processing » compilers
» spreadsheet » linkers
» database (management system) » device drivers
» control and measurement software » operating systems
» apps and applets » utilities.
» video editing
» graphics editing
» audio editing
» computer-aided design (CAD).

Word Processor Used to manipulate text documents

Spreadsheet Used to manipulate numerical data
Database Used to organize, manipulate and analyze data
Photo editing software Allows user to manipulate digital photographs stored on a computer
Video editing software Allows user to manipulate videos to produce edited video
Desktop publishing (DTP) Used in making magazines, flyers and posters
Applet It can perform interactive animations or other simple tasks
Web page design Used in creating websites
Control and Measuring Used to allow a computer or microprocessor to interface with sensors
software

A compiler is a computer program that translates a program written in a high-level

compilers language (HLL) into machine code (code that is understood by the computer) so that it
can be directly used by a computer to perform a required task
A linker (or link editor) is a computer program that takes one or more object files
linkers produced by a compiler and combines them into a single program that can be run on
a computer
A device driver is the name given to software that enables one or more hardware
device drivers devices to communicate with the computer’s operating system. Without drivers, a
hardware device (for example, a printer) would be unable to work with the computer
operating The operating system (OS) is essentially software running in the background of a
systems computer system. It manages many of the basic functions.
Utility programs are software that has been designed to carry out specific tasks on a
utilities
computer

pg. 3 Eng. Ali Hesham

Operating systems allow:

• input/output operations

• users to communicate with the computer (for example, Windows)

• error handling to take place

• the loading and running of programs to occur

• managing of security

Analogue and digital data

 digital data

data that computers can only understand data which is in a binary format, it can only have discrete,
discontinuous values

 Analogue data

is physical data that changes smoothly from one value to the next

we can convert from digital to analogue and vice versa by

 Analogue to digital converter (ADC)

 Digital to analogue converter (DAC)

Main components of computer systems

Central processing unit (CPU)/processor A central processing unit (CPU) or processor is an electronic circuit
board in a computer that can execute instructions from a computer program.

The two main components are:

• arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) where arithmetic and logical operations are carried out

• control unit (CU) which takes instructions the decodes and executes the instructions.

pg. 4 Eng. Ali Hesham

Operating systems

User interfaces

» command line interface (CLI)

» graphical user interface (GUI)
» dialogue-based user interface
» gesture-based user interface.
GUI vs CLI

GUI: allows the user to interact with a computer using pictures or symbols (icons) rather than having to
type in a number of commands its consists from WIMP (windows icons menu and pointing device) & touch
screens

CLI: requires a user to type in instructions to choose options from menus, open software

pg. 5 Eng. Ali Hesham

Similarities

 CLI and GUI both carry out file management

 CLI and GUI use similar utilities
 Both are operating systems
 Both control the hardware and software

Dialogue-based user interface vs Gesture-based user interface

Dialogue-based user interfaces

use the human voice to give commands to a computer system

Gesture-based interfaces

rely on human interaction by the moving of hands, head or even the feet. Gesture recognition allows
humans to interface with a computer in a more natural fashion without the need for any mechanical
devices

pg. 6 Eng. Ali Hesham

Types of Computers
Advantages Disadvantages
Lower cost than laptop Not portable
At same cost Desktop computer Due to its connected by cables
has better specifications users may have subjected to
As its fixed in one location its tripping over cables
Desktop Computer less likely being damaged
Internet access is more stable
than laptops
Can be easier to upgrade
Easier to reduce glare on screen
as it is separate
More portable than desktop Easier to steal
computer Have limited battery life
Lightweight compared to compared to desktop computer
desktop computer which connects directly plugged
Laptop Computer Less power consumption than straight to wall socket
desktop computer
It doesn’t generate too much
heat unlike desktop computer
It can access internet through
Wi-Fi
Very fast to switch on Have less memory compared to
Fully portable than other devices other devices
Have touch screen technology Typing on touch screen can be
Tablets
Don’t generate any heat slow sometimes
Battery life is longer Laptops and desktop computers
Can access internet through Wi- have the ability to support more
Fi, 3G and 4G file formats
Allow normal phone calls to be Small screens make them
made difficult to read pages
They are very small in size which Has a very small memory
make it most portable devices of compared to laptop
Smartphones them all Not all website features can be
Is the most portable while using opened on smart phones
internet Easier to lose due to its size
Data transfer rate is slower
during mobile phone network
compared to Wi-Fi

pg. 7 Eng. Ali Hesham

Emerging technologies

Artificial intelligence

AI is a machine or application which carries out a task that requires some degree of intelligence

Examples

– the use of language

– recognising a person’s face
– the ability to operate machinery, such as a car, aeroplane, train, and so on
– analysing data to predict the outcome of a future event, for example weather forecasting.
AI duplicates human tasks which require decision-making and problem-solving skills

Disadvantages of AI

» could lead to many job losses in a number of areas (although it is true to say that new technical
jobs would also be created); many jobs could be lost in manufacturing, but other roles are likely to
be affected (such as bus, taxi, lorry and train drivers)
» dependency on technology and the inability to carry out tasks done by robots, for example, could
be an issue in the future
» loss of skills – even now, skills from previous generations have been lost as humans have been
replaced by machines and software applications.
Extended reality

refers to real and virtual combined environments

» augmented reality (AR)

» virtual reality (VR)
» mixed reality (MR).
The features of augmented reality include:

» allow the user to experience the relationship between digital (virtual) and physical (real) worlds
» virtual information and objects are overlaid onto real-world situations
» the real world is enhanced with digital details, such as images, text and animation
» the user can experience the AR world through special goggles or via smartphone/phablet screens
» the user is not isolated from the real world and is still able to interact and see what is going on in
front of them
The features of virtual reality include:

» the ability to take the user out of the real-world environment into a virtual (unreal) digital
environment
» in contrast to AR, the user is fully immersed in a simulated digital world
» users must wear a VR headset or a head-mounted display which allows a 360° view of the virtual
world
» this technology can be used to good effect in: medicine (teaching operation procedures),
construction, engineering and the military.

pg. 8 Eng. Ali Hesham

 CHAPTER 2

INPUT VS OUTPUT DEVICES

Input devices and their uses

MANUAL DATA ENTRY

Keyboard
Numeric keypads
Mouse
Touchpad
Trackball
Remote control
Joysticks
Driving Wheel
Touch screens(input & output device)
Scanners
Microphones
Graphics Tablet
Light pens
Digital Cameras
Video Cameras
Webcams

pg. 9 Eng. Ali Hesham

Sensors

Direct data entry

 Card Readers
 Magnetic stripe readers
 Contactless debit card readers
 Chip and PIN readers

Magnetic stripe readers

These are used to read information on the magnetic stripe found on, for example, the back of a credit
or debit card. The stripe contains useful information, such as: account number, sort code, expiry date
and start date
Advantages Disadvantages
» Fast data entry, rather than keying in with a » If the magnetic stripe gets damaged the data is
keyboard or keypad. lost.
» Error-free (because no typing is involved). » Does not work at a distance
» Secure as information not in human readable
form

Contactless debit card readers

Contactless debit or credit cards allow customers to pay for items worth up to a certain amount of
money without entering their PIN. All contactless cards have a small chip that emits radio waves
embedded in them
Advantages Disadvantages
» Faster transactions »They are more expensive than normal
» Customers do not have to worry about typing credit/debit cards.
errors (such as incorrectly typing in a PIN). » A thief with a suitable reader could monitor
» Retailers no longer have access to the your contactless card transaction while standing
customer’s credit/debit card information. at the counter with you, or just behind you
» Can take money twice if the customer uses it as
a chip and PIN card
» Transactions are usually limited to a small
maximum value

pg. 10 Eng. Ali Hesham

 Chip and PIN readers
are similar to smart card readers but are used at EFTPOS terminals. The device has a slot into which the
card is placed and the chip is read; the PIN is entered using the keypad. The reader also has a small
screen which gives instructions to the operator
Advantages Disadvantages
» More secure system than contactless payments » Fraud – need to be careful to ensure PIN is not
» More robust system than magnetic stripe cards. read by somebody else while typing it in.

pg. 11 Eng. Ali Hesham

Radio frequency identification (RFID) readers

readers use radio waves to read and capture information stored on a tag

RFID tag is made up of two components:

» a microchip that stores and processes information

» an antenna which is used to receive and transmit data/information.

Uses of RFID

» Livestock tracking
» Retail (it is similar to barcodes, but does not require any scanning; details such as price can be stored on
the tag and then automatically read at a checkout
» Admission passes
» Libraries (books can be tracked in and out automatically by readers at the library entrance; no need to
scan barcodes or use magnetic stripe cards, making the process quicker and more accurate)

Advantages of RFID

» No line-of-sight contact is necessary; the tags can be read from a distance.

» It is a very robust and reliable technology.
» Very fast read rate.

Disadvantages of RFID

» Tag collision (this is when the signals from two or more tags overlap, interfering with each other).
» Because RFID uses radio waves, they are relatively easy to jam or interrupt.
» RFID is more expensive than a comparable barcode system.

Optical mark recognition/reader (OMR)

is a device which can read marks written in pen or pencil on a form. The places where the pen or pencil
marks can be made are clearly shown on the form

Advantages of OMR devices

» Very fast way of inputting the results of a survey

» Because there is no typing, they are more accurate than keying in the data.
» They are more accurate than OCR methods.

Disadvantages of OMR devices

» The forms need to be carefully designed to make sure the marks/shading are correctly positioned to
gather accurate information.
» There can be problems if they have not been filled in correctly; sometimes they have to be manually
checked before being read, which is both time consuming and expensive

pg. 12 Eng. Ali Hesham

Optical character recognition/reader (OCR)

is the name given to a device that converts the text on hard copy documents into an electronic form. OCR
software converts this electronic data into a form that can then be used in various application packages

Uses of OCR

» One of the most recent uses is the processing of passports and identity cards.
» Converting hard copy documents into electronic form which can be stored on a computer.
» Used in automatic number plate recognition (ANPR) systems in car parks.

Advantages of OCR

» It is a much faster data entry system than manually keying in data.

» Because there is no manual data entry, the number of errors is also reduced.
Disadvantages of OCR

» The system still has difficulty reading some handwriting.

» Still not a very accurate technique.

Barcode reader

Barcode readers are used to read information in the form of a bar code

Uses of barcode systems

» Used in supermarkets and other shops where the goods are marked with a barcode; the barcodes are
used to give information about the product which enables automatic stock control
» Used in libraries to keep track of books on loan.

 Faster than typing data by keyboard

Advantages
 Automatic stock control
 Can be more easily damaged than RFID
Disadvantages
 Can conduct errors so you have to type with keyboard

pg. 13 Eng. Ali Hesham

Quick response (QR) code scanners (readers)

A QR code consists of a block of small squares (light and dark) known as pixels. It can presently hold up to
4296 characters and allows internet addresses to be encoded within the QR code

Uses of QR codes

» Used in advertising to contain data such as business addresses, phone numbers, email addresses and
website addresses
» Contain links to apps
» Wi-Fi authentication
» QR codes can be used to deliver augmented reality

Advantages of QR codes

» They can hold much more information than normal barcode.

» There will be fewer errors than with barcodes
» QR codes are easier to read

Disadvantages of QR codes

» More than one QR format is available.

» QR codes can be used to transmit malicious codes

pg. 14 Eng. Ali Hesham

Output Devices

 Cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors

 Thin film transistor (TFT)
 Multimedia projector
 Speakers
 Actuators
 Touch screen
Printers

 Laser printer
 Inkjet printer
 Dot matrix printer
 Graph plotter
 Wide format printer
 3D printer
3D printer

 Make three dimensional solid objects from a computer design

 Using any material (metal, paper, ceramic, etc. ….)
 Objects built layer by layer

Advantages of laser printers

» Printing is fast
» They can handle very large print jobs.
» The quality is consistently high.
» Toner cartridges last for a long time
Disadvantages of laser printers

» Only really fast if several copies are being made.

» Colour laser printers tend to be expensive to run
Advantages of inkjet printers

» High-quality output.
» Cheaper to buy than laser printers.
» Very lightweight and have a small physical footprint.
» Do not produce ozone and volatile organic compounds, unlike laser printers.
Disadvantages of inkjet printers

» Slow output if several copies are needed (little buffer capacity to store the pages).
» Cannot do large print jobs (ink cartridges run out too quickly).
» Can be expensive if used a lot
Advantages of dot matrix printers

» They can be used in environments which would be a problem for laser or inkjet printers
» Carbon copies or multi-part outputs can be produced.
» Very cheap to run and maintain.
» Easy to use if continuous stationery is required (for example, long print jobs such as wages slips).
Disadvantages of dot matrix printers

» Very noisy – not good in an office environment.

» Actually cost more than an inkjet printer to buy initially.
» Very slow, poor-quality printing

pg. 15 Eng. Ali Hesham

Uses of touch screens (acting as both input and output)

» Smartphones and tablets (allowing interaction with apps).

» ATMs at banks (where screen options displayed depend on previous input response).

» Ticket collection machines at theatres, cinemas and railway stations (again on-screen outputs will depend
on previous inputs).

» Information kiosks at museums or art galleries.

Advantages of touch screens

» Faster entry of options than using a keyboard or mouse.
» Very easy method for choosing options.
» User-friendly method – no training necessary in its use.
» Option to expand the size of the display if necessary.

Disadvantages of touch screens

» Limited number of options available.
» Not very good if large amounts of data are being input or output because they are not very accurate and
the interface is not fast.
» The screen can get very dirty with constant touching (giving a risk of spreading infections, as well as
reducing its responsiveness and making it more difficult to read in strong sunlight).
» Easier for a third party to track a user’s interactions, which is a security risk

pg. 16 Eng. Ali Hesham

 CHAPTER 3
Storage devices
storage media

is the hardware on which the data is actually stored (for example, a CD or a DVD)

storage device

is the hardware used to read from or write to the media (for example, a CD/DVD reader or writer)

Data transfer rate is the rate at which data can be sent from a storage device to a computer (or vice versa).

Data access time is the time it takes to locate specific data stored on the storage media.

Fixed hard disk

Magnetic Portable hard disk
Magnetic tape
CD ROM / DVD ROM
CD R /DVD R
Optical backing storage CD RW / DVD RW
DVD RAM
BLU-RAY
Memory sticks / Pen drives
Solid State backing storage Flash memory cards
SSD
Magnetic Devices & Media

Magnetic Tape

Uses

» Use in applications where batch processing is used (for example, clearing bank cheques)

» Used as a backup media where vast amounts of data need to be stored.

» Used in long-term archiving of data; magnetic tapes have huge data storage capacities and are known to
be very stable, which makes them ideal for long-term storage.

Advantages of magnetic tapes

» They are generally less expensive (per byte) than the equivalent hard disk drive.

» It is a very robust technology.

» They have a huge data storage capacity.

Disadvantages of magnetic tape

» Very slow data access times (they use serial access, which means all the previous data needs to be read
until the required data is found)

» They are affected by magnetic fields; can corrupt data stored on the tape.

pg. 17 Eng. Ali Hesham

Hard disk drives (HDD)

Characteristics

Actuators are used to move the read/write heads

A read/write arm swings the read/write head back and forth

magnet which allows the data on the platter to be read

Platters are made from glass, ceramic or aluminum

Data is stored in concentric, circular tracks

Uses of fixed hard disk drives

» To store the operating system, systems software and working data/files.

» Storing applications software.

» Used in real-time systems (for example, robots, control of a chemical plant) and in online systems (for
example, booking airline tickets, automatic stock control (using EPOS)).

» Used in file servers for computer networks.

Advantages of fixed hard disk drives

» They have a very fast data transfer rate and fast access times to data.

» They have very large memory capacities.

Disadvantages of fixed hard disk drives

» They can be fairly easily damaged

» They have many moving parts which can affect their overall reliability.

» Their read/write operation can be quite noisy when compared to solid-state drives

Portable hard disk drives

are essentially HDDs external to the computer and can be connected to the computer using one of the USB
ports

Uses of portable hard disk drives

» They can be used as backup systems to prevent loss of data.

» They can be used to transfer data/files/software between computers.

Advantages of portable hard disk drives

» The data access time and data transfer rate are very fast.

» They have a large memory capacity.

» They can be used as a method of transferring information between computers.

pg. 18 Eng. Ali Hesham

Disadvantages of portable hard disk drives

» As with fixed disk drives, they can be easily damaged if the user accidentally drops it or does not correctly
shut down the drive after use.

» Data transfer rate is not as fast as for fixed hard drives

Optical media and optical storage devices

They rely on the optical properties of laser light, which is used to read data and to write data on the surface
of the disk

The data is stored in pits and lands on the spiral track

A red laser is used to read and write the data

Types

CD

DVD

BLU-RAY DISCS

CD ROM/DVD ROM CD R/DVD R CD RW/DVD RW

Uses Uses Uses
» These optical disks are read- » Home recordings of music and » Used to record television
only memory (ROM) which films. programs which can be recorded
means they cannot be written » Used to store data to be kept over, time and time again
over and can only be read. They for later use or to be transferred » Used in CCTV systems.
are a permanent method of data to another computer. » Can be used as a backup device
storage. for files and data.
» CD-ROM is used to store music
files and to store software,
computer games and reference
software.
» CD-ROMs and DVD-ROMs are
used in applications where there
is a real need to prevent the
deletion or overwriting of
important data.
Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages
» They are less » The data » Cheaper » Can only be » Can be » Can be
expensive than transfer medium than recorded once; written over relatively
hard disk drive rate/data RW disks. if an error many times. expensive
systems. access time is » Once burned occurs then » Can use media.
slower than for (and finalised) the disk has to different file » Possible to
hard disks. they behave be thrown formats each accidentally
like a ROM. away. time it is used. overwrite data.
» Not all » Not as
CD/DVD wasteful as R
players can format
read CD- because the
R/DVD-R. files/data can
be added at a
later stage
Blu-ray discs

pg. 19 Eng. Ali Hesham

Blu-ray discs are read from or written to using a Blu ray optical storage device.

Uses of Blu-ray discs

» Home video consoles.

» Storing and playing back movies (one high definition movie of two hours duration uses up 25 GB of
memory).

Advantages of Blu-ray discs

» Very large storage capacity, therefore ideal for storing high definition movies.

» Very fast data transfer rate.

» The data access speed is also greater than with other optical media.

» Blu-ray discs automatically come with a secure encryption system, which helps to prevent piracy and
copyright infringement.

Disadvantages of Blu-ray discs

» Relatively expensive discs.

» Encryption problems (which are used to stop piracy) when used to store video.

» Introduction of HD (high definition) DVD players has reduced the advantages of using Blu-ray disc
technology

Solid-state drives (SSD)

Comparison between Hard disk drive (HDD) and Solid state drive (SSD)
 The SSD is lighter in weight than the HDD therefore the laptop will be lighter and more portable
 The speed of access in SSD is a lot quicker
 The speed of data transfer in SSD is a lot quicker
 There is less chance of the data becoming corrupted as it can save whilst the laptop is moving
 It is a smaller device therefore the laptop will be smaller/thinner SSD
 Uses less energy
 Less chance of impact damage
Disadvantages of SSD
Less longevity
Not suitable for servers

Pen drives (memory sticks)

small portable devices that make use of solid-state technology

Uses of memory sticks/pen drives

» Transporting files between computers or using as a backing store.

» Used as a security device to prevent software piracy (known as a dongle).

Advantages of memory sticks/pen drives

» Very compact and portable media.

» Very robust.

pg. 20 Eng. Ali Hesham

 » Does not need additional software to work on most computers.

» They are not affected by magnetic fields.

Disadvantages of memory sticks/pen drives

» Cannot write protect the data/files by making it ‘read-only’.

» Easy to lose (due to the small physical size).

» The user needs to be very careful when removing a memory stick from a computer

Memory cards

A memory card makes use of solid-state technology.

» SD cards (secure digital card)

» XD cards (extreme digital card)

» CFast card (compactfast card).

The XD card

is a type of removable memory card designed for use in digital cameras.

The SD card

is a type of very small card with a very high-capacity memory. SD cards are primarily used in portable
devices such as digital video recorders, digital cameras, audio players, smartphones and tablets

A CFast card

is a memory card format which was developed to allow solid state technology to be used in a very small
portable device.

It has no moving mechanical parts and does not need a battery to retain data.

CFast cards are primarily used as removable memory for higher-end digital photo and video cameras

Uses of memory cards

» Storing photos on digital cameras.

» Used as mobile phone memory cards.

Advantages of memory cards

» Very compact – can be easily removed and used in another device or for transferring photos directly
to a computer or printer.

» Because they are solid-state memories (and have no moving parts) they are very durable.

» They can hold large amounts of data.

Disadvantages of memory cards

pg. 21 Eng. Ali Hesham

 » Expensive per gigabyte of memory when compared to hard disk drives.

» Have a lower storage capacity than hard disks.

Comparison between Pen drive and Magnetic tape

 Pen drives work on most computer systems magnetic tape drives may not
 Magnetic tape drives are more expensive to buy
 Pen drives are more robust
 Finding/restoring data from a pen drive is easier
 Pen drives are less affected to magnetic fields
 Easier to carry around/more portable

 Cloud storage

Cloud: is a large group of remote networked servers which allows centralized data storage

Advantages Disadvantages
 Easy to access data outside home.  Risk of hacking.
 Don’t have to pay for large computers /  Risk of error by manufacturer leading to
mobile storage capacity. data loss.
 Ability to synchronize files across  Slower download / upload than storage
multiple devices. media.
 Automatic backups.  Loss of control of the data as the data is
controlled by a data storage provider.

pg. 22 Eng. Ali Hesham

 CHAPTER 4
Networks

Network Devices

Modem It allows computers to connect to networks

over existing telephone networks.
HUB Its main function to take any data packet
received at one port and broadcast to every
computer in the network.

Switch Checks the data packets received and work

the destination address (MAC address) and
sends the data to the appropriate computer
Bridge Device used to connect one LAN to another
uses the same protocol
Router Device used in joining computers and
networks to the internet.
Gateway Network point or node that acts as an
entrance to another network
Network Interface card NIC Allow device to connect to network ex:
internet.
It contains MAC address generated at
manufacturing stage.
Network Cables Faster Data transmition than Wi-Fi
More secure than Wi-Fi

More hardware devices:

Proxy server
o Device located between LAN network and the internet.
o Computers can request a web page via proxy server.
o Proxy server will access the page then pass it to the computer who asked for it.
Features of proxy servers:
o It can temporarily store recently accessed web pages so they can load faster next time this
what we call (Cache).
o Control internet access by blocking unwanted sites.
o Monitor traffic and usage for the network computer.
o Doesn’t need to download files multiple times.
File server:
Store files shared by users of network.
Webserver:
o Computers that contains webpages.
o It contacts the webserver when you try to access data.
o Every webserver has an IP address and domain name.

pg. 23 Eng. Ali Hesham

 How Router works

1) Router observe any data packets sent to it from any computer on any of the networks
connected to it.
2) It holds the IPs and MACs addresses of all computer.
3) As the network has the same part of IP address the router sends the data packet to the
appropriate switch.
4) It will be delivered to the computer through the MAC address destination.
5) If the MAC address doesn’t match any device in the network it passes to another switch on
the same network.
6) Until appropriate device is found.
Router stores the Routing Table which contains the IP address of next router & the shortest distance

Data Packet
Its data transfer through a network.
Contain the following information:
o Some form of header to identify the data packets.
o Sender’s IP address.
o Receiver’s IP address.
o How many data packet make the whole message?
o Identify number of each packet.
Function:
Information allow the router to route a packet across a network to its correct destination.
Allow data packet to be collected in their correct order according to their identity number at
receiving station.

IP address MAC address

Gives the location of a device on the internet. Identifies the device connected to the internet.
Can be changed. Cannot be changed.
Given by ISP (internet service protocol). Given by Manufacturer.

Differences Wi-Fi Bluetooth

Info. -Offer wireless communication between devices.
-They use radio frequencies to transmit the data.
Data transfer rate  
Range  
Security  
Bluetooth is useful:
Transferring data between two or more devices that are close to each other
Speed of data transition is not critical.
For low-bandwidth application (sending music files).

pg. 24 Eng. Ali Hesham

 Differences LAN WLAN
Type of connection Cables Radio waves
Tripping over cables Yes No
Hacking More difficult Easier
Transfer speed Higher Lower
Add devices More difficult Easier
Can connect mobiles No Yes
Allows portability during use No Yes

WAN (Wide area network)

o Consists of a group of LANs connected together ex: internet and ATMs.
o Public network as it consists of unlimited number of computers connected together.
o It makes use of public communication network like (telephone lines or satellites).

Network issues and communication

Video conference
is a communication method that uses both video and sound. It is a substitute for face-to-face
conferences between a number of people, who may be in a different part of the country or live
overseas. It is carried out in real time and makes use of some form of network

Advantages Disadvantages
 Possible to held conference at short  Potential time lag.
notice.  Bad quality of image due to poor
 Not travelling physically so it reduces internet connection.
costs of:  Different time zone training people to
 Travelling costs hotel accommodation. use the system can be both costly
 Taking people away from their work. and time consuming.
 Avoid going to unsafe places.  Whole system relies on good internet
 Access important documents while connection.
people are in their own building.

 Audio conference
Meeting held between people using sound equipment.
Internet telephony (VOIP)
o VOIP stands for voice over internet protocol.
o Service which enables people to make phone calls over the internet.

Web conference
Use the internet to make conference to take place multiple computers are connected together
all connected by internet.

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 CHAPTER 5
Security of data
» hacking
» phishing
» vishing
» smishing
» pharming
» viruses
» malware
» card fraud.

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 Phishing Emails sends to users asking for their private information by replying to the
email or the user clicks on a link to be sent to a fake website.
Smishing Short for SMS phishing using the SMS system of mobile phones to send
out fake text asking for personal information.
Vishing Uses a voice mail message to trick the user into calling the telephone
number.
Pharming Malicious code installed on user’s computer or on webserver; the code will
redirect the user to fake website without their knowledge (the user doesn’t
have to take any action).
Spyware Software that records the key presses on the user’s keyboard then sent
back to the person who sent the software.
Spam Junk email usually sent to a recipient whose mail is on a mailing list or a
group.
Cookies Small files or code that are stored on a user’s computer.
It remembers information such as:
o Items added in the shopping cart in an online store.
o Pieces of information that the user previously entered into form
fields such as names and address.
Viruses and malware

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Card fraud
Card fraud is the illegal use of a credit or debit card. This can be due to:

» shoulder surfing when using the card on any device that requires keyboard entries (for example, an
ATM or a handheld POS terminal)

» card cloning

» key logging software

Shoulder surfing

Shoulder surfing is a form of data theft where criminals steal personal information from a victim when
they are using a cash dispensing machine

Examples of shoulder surfing includes:

» somebody watching you key in data, such as your PIN

» somebody listening in when you are giving credit or debit card details over the phone

There are ways to overcome this security risk:

» When using ATMs shield the keyboard with your other hand so that no-one can see which keys you
are pressing
» When using a mobile device (such as a smartphone, tablet or laptop) never key in data in a public
place
» If you are using a public place, make sure you are nowhere near security cameras which could record
passwords or other data about you
Card cloning

Card cloning is the copying of a credit or debit card which uses a magnetic stripe. Cloning of this type of
card employs an electronic device known as a skimmer

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Protection of data
» biometrics
» digital certificates
» secure sockets layer (SSL)
» encryption
» firewalls
» two-factor authentication
» user ID and password.
Biometrics
Unique characteristics of human beings.
Examples:
o Finger prints scans.
o Signature recognition.
o Iris recognition.
o Face recognition.
o Voice recognition.
Advantages:
 High accuracy.
 Easy to use.
 Small storage requirements for the biometric.
 Impossible to sign in for somebody else as finger print can’t be misplaced.
Disadvantages:

 Expensive to install and setup.

 If person’s finger is damaged through an injury this can have effect on the scanning
accuracy.

Retina scans uses infrared light to scan the unique pattern of blood vessels in the
retina (back of the eye)

Secure sockets layer (SSL)

is a type of protocol that allows data to be sent and received securely over the internet.

To know if SSL is being applied

see https (as part of the website address)

the small padlock in the status bar at the top of the screen.

Examples of where SSL would be used:

» online banking and all online financial transactions

» online shopping/commerce

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  Encryption
It’s used to protect data in case it has been hacked or accessed illegally. However, encryption
doesn’t prevent hacking it only makes the data meaningless until the decryption tool is used.
Steps:
1. Encryption encode the data in which it changes the data in a format that is not
understandable.
2. To make the only authorized people who have the decryption key can access the data.

Firewalls
Firewall can be either software or hardware it is between the user computer and network
computer.
It filters information going in or out.
Tasks done by firewall
o Examine traffic between user computer and public network.
o Checks whether incoming or outgoing data meets a given set of criteria.
o If the data fails the criteria, the firewall will block the traffic and give the user a
warning there is a security issue.
o Prevent viruses or hackers entering the user computer network this can be done by
blocking IP address.
o User is warned if some software on their system is trying to access an external data
source.
Two-factor authentication

Authentication refers to the ability of a user to prove who they are

Two-factor authentication is a form of verification which requires two methods of authentication to

verify who a user is.

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Authentication methods

»passwords
» zero login
» biometrics
» magnetic stripes
» smart cards
» physical tokens
» electronic tokens.

Passwords

Change passwords on a regular basis

Passwords should not be easy to crack

Strong passwords should contain:

– at least one capital letter

– at least one numerical value
– at least one other keyboard character

Zero login and biometrics

Zero login essentially relies on devices being smart and secure enough to instantly recognise a user by a
number of features based on:

» biometrics

» behavioural patterns

Magnetic stripe cards

Advantages of magnetic stripe cards

» They are easy to use. » It is not an expensive technology.

» Magnetic cards can be remotely deactivated (if lost or stolen).
» The cards can be multi-purpose

Disadvantages of magnetic stripe cards

» Less secure than biometric methods (no encryption is used and the stripe contents can be copied fairly
easily).
» The cards wear out with a lot of use.
» Magnetic readers often fail to read the cards on first attempt.

Smart cards

By inserting a tag (chip and antenna) into a security card, it can act as a smart contactless card

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Physical tokens

A physical (or hardware) token is a form of authentication in the form of a physical, solid object.
Physical tokens contain
internal clocks and when a PIN and other authentication details are entered, then a one-time password
(OTP) is generated.
The OTP is shown on a small screen.
The code changes on a regular basis and is usually only valid for less than a minute

Electronic tokens

are software installed on a user’s device, such as a smartphone

code generated by the website and the user app software to allow authentication

 Digital certificates
Pair of files stored on a user’s computer used to secure data sent over the
internet.
Each pair is divided into:
 Public key which is known by anyone.
 Private Key known to computer user only.

The digital certificates are made up of six parts:

o Sender’s email address.
o Name of the digital certificate owner.
o Serial number.
o Expiry date.
o Public key used for encrypting messages.
o Digital signature of significant authority.

Electronic conferencing
» video conferencing

» audio conferencing

» web conferencing.

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 CHAPTER 6
Effects of using ICT
Effects of using microprocessor-controlled devices in the home

can have positive and negative effects on our:

» lifestyle
» leisure time
» physical fitness
» data security
» social interaction

Monitoring and controlling transport

» monitoring of traffic on motorways
» congestion zone monitoring
» automatic number plate recognition (ANPR)
» automatic control of traffic lights
» air traffic control systems
» railway signalling systems.

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Advantages and disadvantages of transport monitoring and control systems

Autonomous vehicles in transport

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Potential health problems related to the prolonged use of IT equipment

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Physical safety

E-Safety
» when using the internet
» sending and receiving emails
» taking part in social media
» online gaming.

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Using the internet
»When using the internet make sure that the websites being used can be trusted (for example, look out
for websites including https and/or the green padlock symbol ).
» Only purchase items from websites that offer secure, encrypted connections
» When using search engines, always make sure the device settings are set to ‘safe search’
» Only use websites recommended by teachers.
» Be careful what you download
» Always remember to log out of sites when you have finished using them

Sending and receiving emails

» Only open emails or attachments from known sources.
» Make sure your internet service provider (ISP) has an effective email filtering feature to ensure emails
from unknown sources are put into your spam folder.
» Only reply to an email if you know the person who sent it
» Check that email addresses or website addresses pertaining to come from a genuine company always
contain the real company’s website address;

Social media
» Do not publicly post or give out personal information to people you do not know
» Do not send out photos of yourself to people you do not know
» Always make sure you use the privacy settings when posting photos of yourself on social media sites,
so that only people you trust can see them.
» It is important that none of the photos you post can link you to a place or an address

Online gaming
» predators (people who prey on others who they see as vulnerable)
» cyberbullying
» use of webcams

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Data protection
This is legislation designed to protect individuals and to prevent incorrect or inaccurate data being
stored

Main principles of data protection acts

1 Data must be fairly and lawfully processed.

2 Data can only be processed for the stated purpose.
3 Data must be adequate, relevant and not excessive.
4 Data must be accurate.
5 Data must not be kept longer than necessary.
6 Data must be processed in accordance with the data subject’s rights.
7 Data must be kept secure.
8 Data must not be transferred to another country unless they also have adequate protection.

Personal data
refers to any data concerning a living person who can be identified from the data itself or from the data
in conjunction with other information
Examples of personal data include:
» name
» address or email address
» an ID card number/passport number
» an IP address

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 CHAPTER 7
Software lifecycle
To create a new software system, you need to follow the following steps:
1. Analysis
2. Design
3. Development & testing
4. Implementation
5. Documentation
6. Evaluation

1. Analysis
Conducting information about the current system by:
o Identifying input output and processing in the existing system
o Identify problems with the system
o Identify user and information requirements

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ENG. Ali Hesham 40 01028063762
 2. Design
Taking decisions based on which the system will be created
DIPO
 Database File Structure
 Input methods
 Processing
 Output methods

3. Development & testing

Data within the range and

Normal data
its accepted data

Data outside the range and

Abnormal data
its rejected data
Unit test
Data on the border of the
Extreme data range maybe accepted or
rejected data

Data on the border of the

Boundary Condition range rejected data

Ex: real live data

Data with known input and
System test Whole system is tested known output it conducted
from the previous results of
the old system and its
accepted data
Reason of unit test
To apply validation routines to data

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Implementation
Replacing old system with new system

Documentation

User documentation Technical documentation

o Sample runs o Program flowcharts
o How to use the system o System flowcharts
o Error messages o File structure
o Frequently asked questions o Program coding
o Trouble-shooting guide o List of variables
o Validation routines
o Software and hardware requirements
o Purpose of the system
o Limitations of the systems
Evaluation
To make sure users are satisfied after implementing the system
To make sure that the system does the following
» Compare the final solution with the original task requirements.
» Identify any limitations of the system.
» Identify any necessary improvements that need to be made.
» Evaluate the users’ responses to using the new system.
» Compare test results from the new system with results from the old system.
» Compare performance of the new system with performance of the old system.

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How to conduct any suggestions
o Interviews and questioners with the users To collect wide variety of responses after
using the system
o Comparing the system with the original requirements

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CHAPTER 8
Audiences
When writing a presentation, you need to consider all of the following factors
» The age of the target group
» The experiences of the audience
» The expectation of the audience
» Knowledge of the audience

Needs of the audience

Copyright
Software piracy is the illegal copying of software.
There are a number of ways software is protected
» When software is being installed, the user may be asked to key in a unique reference number or
product key
» The user will be asked to click ‘OK’/’I AGREE’ or put a cross in a box to agree to the licence agreement
before the software continues to install.
» Some software will only run if the CD, DVD or memory stick is actually in the drive; this stops illegal
multiple use and network use of the software.
» Some software will only run if a dongle is plugged into one of the USB ports.

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A dongle is a small device, usually plugged into one of the computer’s USB ports. It is used to allow
wireless communications with devices
Communication with other ICT users using email

Netiquette
Netiquette is a shortened form of the phrase interNET etIQUETTE, which refers to the need to respect
other users’ views and display common courtesy when posting views in online discussion groups or
when sending out emails.
Rules of netiquette
1. Do not be abusive – do not threaten people or use personal violence.
2. Do not send spam – do not repeatedly send somebody the same information.
3. Remember that posts are public in most cases and can be read by anyone.
4. Always check your spelling and grammar – give a good impression.
5. Respect people's privacy and do not discuss or publish information that might embarrass somebody.
6. Do not use CAPITAL LETTERS to highlight comments – this is seen as ‘shouting’ in emails, text
messages and online forums.
7. Do not plagiarise – always acknowledge quotes used in any messages you write. Do not use too many
emoticons as they might annoy your readers.

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Email groups
» It is easier for a user to send out multiple emails if the addresses are all grouped together under a
single name
» Companies and organisations can group people together for marketing purposes
» Companies use email groups to set up meetings

Other email operations

» carbon copies (cc)
» blind carbon copy (bcc)
» forward
» attachments.

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CHAPTER 9
Effective use of the internet
The differences between the internet and the World Wide Web (WWW)
Internet is basically a worldwide collection of interconnected networks.
World Wide Web (WWW) is only a part of the internet which users can access using web browser
software.

Intranet
Private access only.
Used to give local information related to a company.
Possible to block certain websites.
Requires password and user ID.
Intranet is behind the firewall which gives some protection against hackers.
Can be accessed inside the organization only by the employees.
Extranet
Allows limited secure access to people working outside the company by accessing it using a username
and password.
Blogs, wikis, social networking sites and forums
Blogs
Web logs (blogs) are personal internet journals where the writer (blogger) will type in their observations
on a topic

Microblogs
are similar to blogs, but are most often used on social networking sites to make short, frequent posts

Features of blogs:

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» updated on a regular basis by the author
» usually organised in reverse chronological order (most recent to least recent entry)
» normally public – anyone can read them
» entries normally come from a single author
» other internet users cannot change blogs

Wikis
Wikis are web applications or websites that allow any user to create and edit their web pages using any
web browser

Features of wikis:
» anyone can edit, delete or modify the content
» many authors can be involved in a wiki
» it is possible to organise a page any way the author(s) wish(es)
» shows/keeps track of all entries
» can be easily edited using a web browser
» allows large documents to be seen by many people

Social networking sites

Social networking sites focus on building online communities of users who share the same interests and
activities
Features of social networking sites:
» Each member is provided with free web space.
» Each member can build their own private and public profiles.
» It is possible to upload content such as text messages, photos and videos.
» It is possible to ‘write on each other’s walls’.

Forums
A moderated forum refers to an online discussion forum in which all the posts are checked by an
administrator before they are allowed to be posted.

Functionality of the internet

Internet service providers (ISP)
is a company that provides users with access to the internet.
It is normal to pay a monthly fee for this service.
When a user registers with an ISP, an account is set up and they are given login details that include a
user ID and password

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Web addresses, URLs, hyperlinks and web browsers
A web browser is software that allows a user to display a web page on their computer screen.
web browsers share the following features:
» They have a home page.
» They have the ability to store a user’s favourite websites.
» They keep a history of the websites visited by the user
» They allow users to navigate backwards and forwards through websites.
» They have hyperlinks

Uniform resource locators (URLs)

Advantages of using the internet to find information

» Information on the internet tends to be up to date because it is quicker and easier to amend web
pages than it is to
» The internet has vast, almost limitless, amounts of information.
» Searching for information using a search engine is fast and easy.
» People can look for information in the comfort of their own home
Disadvantages of using the internet to find information
» The internet is not regulated – anything can be posted on a web page
» There is always the risk of accessing inappropriate websites when using search engines
» It is too easy to be distracted when searching on the internet
» There is always the risk of ‘information overload’

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Protocols
o Protocols are set of rules agreed by the ‘sender’ and ‘recipient’ when data is being
transferred between devices.

 Hypertext transfer protocol (http and https)

o Is set of rules that must be obeyed when transferring data across the internet.
o When some form of security (SSL) encryption is being used http is changed to https
which means secure.
o It’s used when sensitive or private data is being transferred across the internet because
it’s slower.

File transfer protocol (FTP)

o Network protocol used when transferring files from one computer to another over the
internet.
Internet service provider (ISP)
o Company that provides users with access to the internet.
o Users pay monthly fees for this service.
Security protocol
 Secure socket layer (SSL).
Type of protocol that allows data to be sent and received securely over the internet.
When users log onto website SSL encrypts the data only the user computer and the webserver
can only understand the data transmitted.

ICT application
Communication
» newsletters and posters
» websites
» multimedia presentations
» media streaming
» e-publications.
Advantages and disadvantages of using websites for communication

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Multimedia presentations
Presentations that use animation, video and sound or music are generally much more interesting than
static presentations done on slides or paper.

Advantages of multimedia presentations

» use of sound and animation/video effects
» possible to have interactive hyperlinks built into the presentation
» use of transition effects allow a presentation to display facts in a key or chronological order
» can be interactive
» more flexible

Disadvantages of multimedia presentations

» a need to have special equipment which can be expensive
» danger that equipment could fail while giving multimedia presentations
» there may need to be internet access
» very easy to make a bad presentation with too many animation effects and too much text or images.

Media streaming
when users watch movies/videos or listen to music on devices connected to the internet. When using
media streaming there is no need to actually download and save the video or audio files.

Streaming
is a continuous transmission of video or audio files from a remote server where the files are stored. This
means data is transmitted and played in real time.

e-publications
Most material which is published on paper is also available in an electronic format.
For example:
» e-books
» digital magazines

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» digital newspapers
» digital libraries.
the publication can be downloaded to a device connected to the internet where it can be read.
Moving between pages is usually done by swiping a finger across the screen.
E-publications also have the advantage that pages can be expanded in size
it is possible to include media, which would be impossible with the more traditional paper-based
publications.
Specific devices, such as the Kindle, have been developed to allow a library of e-books to be stored on
the device.
Because no printing costs are incurred, e-publications are usually cheaper than their paper-based
counterparts
Mobile communication
» SMS (short message service) messaging
» phone calls
» Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) communication
» video calling
» internet access.

Modelling applications
Advantages of using models
» Using computer models is less expensive than having to build the real thing
» On many occasions it is safer to use a computer model (
» Computer modelling allows you to try out various different scenarios in advance.
» It is nearly impossible to try out some tasks in advance in real life because of the high risk involved or
the remoteness
» It is often faster to use a computer model than do the real thing

Disadvantages of using models

» A model is only as good as the programming or the data entered
» Although building the real thing can be expensive, sometimes computer modelling is also a very costly
option, and the two costs need to be compared before deciding which to use.
» People’s reactions to the results of a simulation may not be positive
Examples where computer modelling is used include:
» personal finance
» bridge and building design
» flood water management
» traffic management
» weather forecasting.

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CHAPTER 9
Computer controlled systems
Robotics in manufacturing
Advantages in using robots
» They can work in environments harmful to human operators.
» They can work non-stop (24/7).
» They are less expensive in the long term
» They provide greater consistency

Disadvantages in using robots

» Robots find it difficult to do ‘unusual’ tasks
» Because robots do many of the tasks once done by humans, there is a real risk of certain skills
» Because robots are independent of the skills base, factories can be moved anywhere in the world
(again causing unemployment).
» The initial set-up and maintenance of robots can be expensive.
School management systems
Schools have to manage a number of different tasks in their day-to-day running
These tasks include:
» registration and attendance records of students
» student performance
» computer-aided learning.

Booking systems
Online booking systems rely on the ability to update files immediately, thus preventing double-booking
Online booking systems are used in:
» the travel industry
» for concerts (theatre and music events)
» for cinema tickets
» when booking sporting events.

Advantages
» They prevent double-booking.
» The customer gets immediate feedback on the availability of seats and whether or not their booking
has been successful.

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» The customer can make bookings at any time of the day

Disadvantages
» The setting up and maintenance of online booking systems is expensive.
» All customers using this service need access to a computer or mobile phone and a reliable internet
connection.
» It is often more difficult to cancel the booking and get your money back using online systems.
» If the server is down for maintenance

Event booking screen display(read only)

» The customer clicks on the performance they wish to see.
» A date and time is typed in.
» The required number of seats is also entered.
» The seating display at the venue is shown on the screen.
» The user selects their seat(s) by highlighting the actual seats on the screen display and then clicks
CONFIRM to go to the next part of the process.
» The database is then searched to check the availability of the selected seats.
» If the seats are available, the total price is shown plus the seat numbers; this shows on another screen
on the web page.
» If the customer is happy with this, they select CONFIRM on the screen.
» The seats are now temporarily held and set by the system as NO LONGER AVAILABLE – this stops
anyone else from booking them
» The customer then enters their personal details or indicates that they are a returning customer (in
which case the website being used will already have their details).
» Payment method is then selected and payment made.
» The theatre seats are then booked in the customer’s name.
» The final details are again shown on the screen.
» An email is sent to the customer which may contain a QR code which contains all their booking details
(this acts as their e-ticket); the QR code is then scanned at the venue.
» The database is finally updated with the booking transaction and the seats are permanently confirmed
as no longer available.
Online banking

Customer Bank
Advantages Advantages
Saves time and cost of Saves cost of rent because of fewer
transportation branches
Available 24 hours Reduces costs of salaries
Suitable for physical disable people Wider range of customers
Can be accessed anywhere Less risk of physical robbery
Disadvantages Disadvantages
Risk of potential hacking or defraud Initial cost of creating secure website
Users need good internet Need to train employees
connection Cost of system maintenance
Higher risks of making mistakes

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 Can’t withdraw or deposit cash
ATM vs. visiting bank branches

Advantages Disadvantages
 ATMs are more widely available than  Not all services are available in ATMs
bank branches  There’s a daily limit which the
 ATMs can work 24 hours a day while customer cannot exceed to withdraw
banks are closed cash
 ATMs offer choice of language
 Can Withdraw cash easily
 Don’t have to wait in line in ATM
unlike bank branches
Online shopping

Customer Shop
Advantages Advantages
 Saves time and cost of transportation  Saves cost of rent
 Available 24 hours  Saves cost of salaries
 Suitable for physical disabled  More methods of advertisements
 Can shop from abroad  Wider range of customers
 Wider variety of products  Less risk of physical robbery
 Easy to compare prices Disadvantages
Disadvantages  Loss of customer loyalty
 Risk of hacking and defraud  Initial cost of secure website
 Quality not guarantees  Need to train employees
 Cost of shipping
 Difficult to refund
 Needs internet connection & credit
card

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Holograms
Special kind of picture produced by a laser and that looks three-dimensional
Advantages
o Provides doctors with full 3-D image of a body part or organ they can move around,
zoom in or manipulate
o Allows students to examine the actual 3D structure of body parts
o Displays organs movement in real, living color and in real time
o Allows students to disjoin different body systems and combine them back together

Steps for using ATMs

Steps
1. Customer inserts card in the ATM
2. Customer is given the choice of language
3. Expiry date is read from the card then compared with today’s date to check if the card
is not expired
4. Customer enters PIN code using numeric keypad then compared to PIN stored on the
card to make sure if they are identical
5. Customer is given choice of transaction required
6. The bank computer is contacted to make sure that the card is not stolen
Cash withdraw Cash deposit Check balance
1. Customer enters amount 1. Customer enters the 1. Master file is searched to
of money required amount of money to be find the account number in
2. Master file in the bank deposited the bank account
computer is searched to 2. Master file in the bank corresponding balance is
find the account number account is searched to read from the master file
3. Customers account to find the account number 2. Balance is displayed
check if there are 3. Customer inserts the cash 3. Customer is asked if they
sufficient funds 4. Cash is counted want a receipt if yes receipt
4. Make sure that the 5. Master file in the bank is printed
amount within the daily account is updated by 4. Card is returned
limit increasing the account
5. If the amount is available balance of the customer
and doesn’t exceed the 6. Customer is asked if they
daily limit the transaction want a receipt if yes
is authorized receipt is printed
6. Master file is updated by 7. Card is returned
decreasing the account
balance of the customer
7. Customer is asked if they
want a receipt if yes
receipt is printed
8. Cash is output
9. Card is returned

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ANPR (Automatic number plate recognition system)
Used to read car plates
Steps
1. Sensors detects a vehicle
2. Sends signal to the camera to capture an image of the car
3. Program is used to isolate the number of plates from the image
4. By using OCR, the brightness and contrast is adjusted to separate each character in the
plate
5. Then stored in the database
6. The car park barrier is raised and the driver receives a ticket showing the date &time
7. When the driver returns, he inserts their tickets to calculate the charge
Disadvantages of using such a system
 Another vehicle/pedestrian could obstruct the view of the camera
 The number plate may be too dirty to read
 The number plate may use illegal characters/font It may be a motor cycle with the
number plate side on/at the back
 Characters are misread – e.g. 0 and O, 1 and I, 2 and Z Position of characters/grouping
of characters

Expert systems
have been developed to mimic the expertise and knowledge of an expert in a particular field
Examples include:
» prospecting for oil and minerals
» diagnostics (finding faults in a car engine, finding faults on a circuit board, etc.)
» medical diagnosis
» strategy games

Advantages of expert systems

» They offer a high level of expertise.
» They offer high accuracy.
» The results are consistent.
» They have the ability to store vast amounts of ideas and facts.

Disadvantages of expert systems

» Users of the expert system need considerable training in its use to ensure the system is being used
correctly.
» The set-up and maintenance costs are very high.
» They tend to give very ‘cold’ responses which may not be appropriate in certain medical situations.
» They are only as good as the information/facts entered into the system

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User interface
» This is the method by which the expert system interacts with a user.
» It allows interaction through dialogue boxes, command prompts or other input methods.
» The questions being asked usually only have yes/no answers and are based on the responses to
previous questions.
Explanation system
» This informs the user of the reasoning behind the expert system’s conclusions and recommended
actions.
The expert system will supply a conclusion and any suggested actions to take
Inference engine
» This is the main processing element of the expert system.
» The inference engine acts like a search engine examining the knowledge base for information/data
that matches the queries.
» It is responsible for gathering information from the user by asking a series of questions and applying
responses where necessary; each question being asked is based on the previous responses.
» The inference engine is the problem-solving part of the expert system, which makes use of inference
rules in the rules base.
» Because the knowledge base is a collection of objects and attributes, the inference engine attempts to
use information gathered from the user to find an object that matches (making use of the rules base to
find a match).
Knowledge base
» The knowledge base is a repository of facts.
» It stores all the knowledge about an area of expertise obtained from a number of expert resources.
» It is basically a collection of objects and their attributes

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Rules base
» The rules base is a set of inference rules.
» Inference rules are used by the inference engine to draw conclusions
» They follow logical thinking
Steps to create an expert system
1. Collect information from experts by interview
2. Design and create knowledge base to store information collected
3. Design and create rules base to make conclusions about the inputs
4. Design and create input and output screen for the user to interact with
How to solve expert systems questions
1. Questions are asked (topic of the question) by the system on the input/output screen
2. User then answer these questions
3. Which will be taken by the rules base to make conclusion about these answers
4. Conclusions will be taken by inference engine to be searched in the knowledge base
5. until a match is found
6. the matching record will be displayed back on the input/output screen

Near field communication (NFC) devices

Technology used in contactless cards to make transactions this technology has encryption methods to
improve security must be near to the reader to read it can also be used by smartphones

Satellites systems
» global positioning systems and satellite navigation (GPS)
» geographic information systems (GIS)
» media communication systems (satellite television and satellite phones).

Global positioning systems (GPS)

are used to determine the exact location of a number of modes of transport

Advantages of GPS and satnav

» The driver does not have to consult paper maps, so it is far safer.
» It removes errors
» The system can estimate the time of arrival.

Disadvantages of GPS and satnav

» If the maps are not kept up to date, they can give incorrect instructions.
» Unless the system is sophisticated, road closures due to accidents or roadworks, can cause problems.
» Loss of satellite signals can cause problems.

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Geographic information system (GIS)
is a computer system that allows us to map, model, query and analyse large amounts of data according
to their location

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