M2794.

001800 M A T E R I A L A N D M A N U F A C T U R I N G P R O C E S S E S

Chapter 3. Structure and

Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Prof. Sung-Hoon Ahn

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Seoul National University

March 17, 2025

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Introduction
▪ Aloha Airlines Flight 243
▪ On April 28, 1988
▪ Maintenance team failed to spot and fix metal fatigue

https://planecrash.fandom.com/wiki/Aloha_Airlines_Flight_243 © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Introduction

Figure 3.1 Turbine Blades for Jet Engines, Manufactured by Three Different Methods (a) conventionally cast;
(b) directionally solidified, with columnar grains, as can be seen from the vertical streaks; and (c) single
crystal. Although more expensive, single-crystal blades have properties at high temperatures that are superior
to those of other blades.

Sample : Turbine blade © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Turbine

Gas turbine Jet Engine

http://www.donga.com/news/article/all/20190919/97488429/1
https://www.m-i.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=1059303 © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
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Gas turbine

lb/in2

http://cset.mnsu.edu/engagethermo/components_gasturbine.html © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Periodic table (주기율표)

Amphoteric
elements
▪ Metalloids(준금속) : the elements that are difficult to classify exclusively as metals or nonmetals and have properties
between those of elements in the two classes

▪ Amphoteric elements(양쪽성 원소) : the elements which have reactivity of a substance with both acids and bases,
acting as an acid in the presence of a base and as a base in the presence of an acid. © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
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Atomic bonds
▪ Primary atomic bonds
▪ Ionic: attraction of positive & negative ions
▪ Covalent: sharing of electrons
▪ Metallic: free electron
▪ Secondary atomic bonds
▪ van der Waals
▪ Hydrogen bond

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Primary bonds

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Crystal Structure of Carbon materials

Carbon NanoTube Diamond Graphite

Young’s Bucky-ball Graphene

Tensile strength
modulus
(Fullerene
Graphene 1 TPa 130 GPa C60)
Carbon
~1 TPa 13~53 GPa
Nanotube(SWCNT)
Diamond 1.22 TPa >1.2 GPa
Graphite 27.6 GPa 76 MPa

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_nanotube
Synthetic Diamond - Emerging CVD Science and Technology', Spear and Dismukes, Wiley, NY, 1994
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphene
www.azom.com/properties.aspx?ArticleID=516 © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
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Crystal Structure of Carbon materials

Graphene
100000 Carbon Nano Tube

10000
Diamond
Graphite
1000

100
Young’s
Tensile strength
modulus
10
Graphene 1 TPa 130 GPa
Carbon
~1 TPa 13~53 GPa 1
Nanotube(SWCNT)
Diamond 1.22 TPa >1.2 GPa
0.1
Graphite 27.6 GPa 76 MPa 1e-4 1e-3 0.01 10 100 1000 10000

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Secondary bonds

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Van der Waals Force

Gecko gripper

Synthetic gecko foot-hair micro/nano-structures as dry adhesive, Journal

of Adhesion Science and Technology , January 2003
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uhfXbSSrabw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v1QkmTniIuU © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
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Potential Energy Curves

Energy

Repulsive
energy

Net energy
Internuclear
distance
0

Equilibrium
bond
length

Attractive
energy

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Potential Energy Curves

Energy

Net energy
Internuclear
distance

A
B

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Crystal Structure of Metals

Crystal – crystalline structure lattice
▪ 3 basic patterns of atomic Figure 3.2 The Body-Centered Cubic
(BCC) Crystal Structure: (a) Hard-Ball
arrangement in most metals Model; (b) Unit Cell; and (c) Single
Crystal with Many Unit Cells. Common
BCC Metals Include Chromium,
Titanium, and Tungsten
▪ BCC (body-centered cubic)
▪ FCC (face-centered cubic)
Figure 3.3 The Face-Centered Cubic
▪ HCP (hexagonal close-packed) (FCC) Crystal Structure: (a) Hard-Ball
Model; (b) Unit Cell; And (c) Single
Crystal with Many Unit Cells. Common
FCC Metals Include Aluminum, Copper,
Gold, and Silver

Figure 3.4 The Hexagonal Close-Packed

(HCP) Crystal Structure: (a) Unit Cell; And
(b) Single Crystal with Many Unit Cells.
The Top and Bottom Planes Are Called
Basal Planes. Common HCP Metals Include
Zinc, Magnesium, and Cobalt

Sample : Balls in the box © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Crystal Structure of Metals (cont.)

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Crystal Structure of Metals (cont.)

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Crystal Structure of Metals (cont.)

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Atomic Packing Factor

▪ Body-centered cubic (BCC)

▪ Face-centered cubic (FCC)

▪ Hexagonal close-packed (HCP)

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Imperfections
▪ Point defects
▪ Vacancy
▪ Interstitial atom
▪ Impurity atom
Figure 3.9 Various Defects in a
▪ Linear defects Single-Crystal Lattice
▪ Dislocations

▪ Planar imperfections
▪ Grain boundary Figure 3.10 (a) Edge Dislocation, a Linear Defect
▪ Phase boundary at the Edge of an Extra Plane of Atoms. (b) Screw
Dislocation, a Helical Defect in a Three-
Dimensional Lattice of Atoms. Screw
▪ Volume (bulk) imperfections Dislocations are So Named Because the Atomic
Planes form a Helical Ramp
▪ Voids
▪ Inclusions
▪ Phases Figure 3.11 Movement of an Edge Dislocation
▪ Cracks Across the Crystal Lattice Under a Shear Stress.
Dislocations Help Explain Why the Actual
Strength of Metals is Much Lower than that
Predicted by Atomic Theory
© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
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Dislocation
▪ Edge dislocation : A dislocation which may be
regarded as the result of inserting an extra plane of
atoms, terminating along the line of the dislocation. Also
known as Taylor-Orowan dislocation. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific & Technical Terms, 6E, Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc.)

▪ Screw dislocation : A dislocation in which atomic planes

form a spiral ramp winding around the line of the
dislocation. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific & Technical Terms, 6E,
Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.)
Figure 7.2 The formation of a step on the surface of a crystal by the motion
of (a) an edge dislocation and (b) a screw dislocation. Note that for an edge,
the dislocation line moves in the direction of the applied shear stress 𝜏; for a
screw, the dislocation line motion is perpendicular to the stress direction.

Figure 3.10 (a) Edge Dislocation, a Linear Defect at the Edge of

an Extra Plane of Atoms. (b) Screw Dislocation, a Helical
Defect in a Three-Dimensional Lattice of Atoms. Screw
Dislocations are So Named Because the Atomic Planes form a
Helical Ramp © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
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Edge dislocation movement

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RUuLusenhfA © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Screw dislocation movement

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RD40OtchSVg © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Deformation of Crystal
▪ Elastic deformation
▪ Plastic deformation
▪ Slip
▪ Slip band
▪ Twinning

Figure 3.5 Permanent Deformation of

a Single Crystal under a Tensile
Load. The Highlighted Grid of Atoms
Emphasizes the Motion that Occurs
within the Lattice (a) Deformation by
Slip. Ratio influences the magnitude
of the shear stress required to cause
slip. Note that the slip planes tend to Figure 3.7 Schematic Illustration of
align themselves in the direction of Slip Lines and Slip Bands in a Single
pulling. (b) Deformation by twinning, Crystal Subjected to a Shear Stress.
involving generation of a “twin” A slip band consists of a number of
around a line of symmetry subjected slip planes. The crystal at the center
to shear. Note that the tensile load of the upper drawing is an individual
results in a shear stress in the plane grain surrounded by other grains.
illustrated.

Sample : Tin sample © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Slip
▪ Slip system
▪ Combination of a slip plane (densest atomic packing) and a slip direction (highest linear density)
▪ Determines the ease of plastic deformation in metals
▪ FCC (12 slip systems) or BCC (at least 12 slip systems) exhibit high ductility due to extensive plastic deformation
along multiple systems
▪ HCP metals (3 - 6 slip systems) are less ductile and tend to be brittle due to limited active slip systems

12 slip systems: 4 planes × 3 directions

Figure 7.6 (a) A {111} 〈110〉 slip system shown within an FCC unit cell. (b) The (111) plane from (a) and three 〈110〉 slip
Sample : Tin sample directions (as indicated by arrows) within that plane constitute possible slip systems. © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
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Examples of Slip

Figure 7.8 Macroscopic Figure 7.9 Slip lines on the surface Figure 7.10 Slip lines on the surface of a polycrystalline specimen of copper that
slip in a single crystal. of a cylindrical single crystal that was polished and subsequently deformed. 173×.
was plastically deformed in tension [Photomicrograph courtesy of C. Brady, National Bureau of Standards (now the
(schematic). National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD).]

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Twinning(쌍정)

Figure 7.12 Schematic diagram showing how twinning results from an applied shear stress 𝜏. (a) Atom positions before twinning.
(b) After twinning, blue circles represent atoms that were not displaced; red circles depict displaced atoms. Atoms labeled with
corresponding primed and unprimmed letters (e.g., A′ and A) reside in mirror-image positions across the twin boundary.
(From W. Hayden, W. G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, John
Wiley & Sons, 1965. Reproduced with permission of Kathy Hayden.)

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Twinning(쌍정)

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Twinning(쌍정)
▪ Mechanism of shape memory effect

Shape Memory Alloys | Seminar Report, PPT, PDF for Mechanical (seminarsonly.com)

Sample (SMA) © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Twinning(쌍정)

Changes in microstructure of a shape memory alloy (bi-crystal of austenitic CuAlNi )

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qZsozvf1pD8 © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
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Strength of single crystal

▪ Theoretical shear strength ▪ Theoretical tensile strength
Figure 3.6 Variation of Shear
Figure 3.8 Variation of Cohesive
Stress in Moving a Plane of
Stress as a Function of Distance
Atoms over Another Plane
Between a Row of Atoms

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Strength of single crystal (cont.)

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Imperfections (cont.)

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Grains & Grain boundaries

Figure 3.13 Variation of

Figure 3.12 Schematic Illustration of the Various Stages during Solidification of Molten Metal. Each small square represents Tensile Stress across a
a unit cell. (a) Nucleation of crystals at random sites in the molten metal. Note that the crystallographic orientation of each Plane of Polycrystalline
site is different. (b) and (c) Growth of crystals as solidification continues. (d) Solidified metal, showing individual grains and Metal Specimen
grain boundaries. Note the different angles at which neighboring grains meet each other. Subjected to Tension.
Note that the Strength
Exhibited by Each Grain
▪ Hall-Petch equation Depends on Its
Orientation

cf. Inverse Hall-Petch equation

Copper nano-crystalline
© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
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Size Effect
▪ The smaller, the better?
▪ Whisker (monocrystalline of about 100nm thick)
▪ CNT (Carbon Nano Tube)

SiC whisker Multiwall CNT

(0.5 micro meter dia.) (20 nano meter dia.)

Sample : Fiber sample © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Plastic Deformation-Polycrystalline Metal

▪ Anisotropy (이방성) ▪ Preferred orientation (선택적 방향성)
▪ Tension-slip directions align with the loading
direction
▪ Compression-slip perpendicular to the loading
direction

▪ Mechanical fibering
▪ Alignment of impurities, inclusions, and voids
▪ Weaken grain boundaries-week/less ductile in
vertical direction
Figure 3.15 Plastic Deformation of
Idealized (Equiaxed) Grains in a
Specimen Subjected to
Compression, Such as is Done in
Rolling or Forging of Metals. (a)
before deformation; and (b) after
deformation. Note the alignment of
grain boundaries along a horizontal
direction.

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Grain Structure Change When Plastically Deformed

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain growth

Figure 3.19 The Effect of Prior Cold

Work on the Recrystallized Grain Size of
Alpha Brass. Below a Critical Elongation
(Strain), Typically 5%, No
Recrystallization Occurs

Figure 3.20 Surface Roughness on the

Cylindrical Surface of an Aluminum
Specimen Subjected to Compression.
Source: A. Mulc and S. Kalpakjian.

Figure 3.17 Schematic Illustration of the Effects of Recovery,

Recrystallization, and Grain Growth on Mechanical Properties Table 3.2 Homologous
and Shape and Size of Grains. Note the formation of small new Temperature Ranges for
grains during recrystallization. Various Processes
© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
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Digital Twin for Forging

Processes 2021, 9(7), 1084; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9071084

https://www.infratec.eu/ © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
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Failure (파손) and Fracture (파괴)

▪ Buckling Figure 3.21 Schematic Illustration of
Types of Failure in Materials. (a) necking
▪ Out-of-plane deformation
and fracture of ductile materials; (b)
buckling of ductile materials under a
compressive load; (c) fracture of brittle
materials in compression; (d) cracking on
the barreled surface of ductile materials in
compression (see also Figure 6.1b).
▪ Fracture
▪ Ductile fracture
• Shear Figure 3.22 Schematic Illustration of the Types of Fracture in
▪ Brittle fracture Tension. (a) brittle fracture in polycrystalline metals; (b) shear fracture
in ductile single crystals (see also Figure 3.5a slide in 6); (c) ductile
• Tensile cup-and-cone fracture in polycrystalline metals (see also Figure 2.2);
and (d) complete ductile fracture in poly-crystalline metals, with 100%
reduction of area.

Sample : Slender beam, Chalk, Rice candy © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Ductile Fracture
▪ Fibrous pattern with dimples

Figure 3.23 Surface of Ductile

Fracture in Low-Carbon Steel,
Showing Dimples. Fracture Is Usually
Initiated at Impurities, Inclusions, or
Pre-Existing Voids in the Metal.
Source: After K.-H. Habig and D.
Klaffke.

Figure 3.24 Sequence of Events in Necking and Fracture of a

Tensile-Test Specimen. (a) early stage of necking; (b) small
voids begin to form within the necked region; (c) voids coalesce,
producing an internal crack; (d) rest of cross section begins to
fail at the periphery by shearing; and (e) final fracture surfaces,
known as cup-(top fracture surface) and-cone (bottom surface)
fracture.
© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
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Ductile Fracture (2)

▪ Effect of inclusions
▪ Transition temperature
▪ Strain aging

Figure 3.25 Schematic Illustration of the Deformation of Inclusions and their Effect on Void Formation in
Plastic Deformation. Note that hard inclusions can cause voids because they do not conform to the overall
matrix deformation.

Figure 3.26 Schematic Illustration of Transition

Temperature. Note the Narrow Temperature
Range Across which the Behavior of the Metal
Undergoes a Major Transition © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
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Brittle Fracture
▪ Cleavage plane – max. tensile stress
Figure 3.27 Typical Fracture
Surface of Steel That Has Figure 3.28 Intergranular
Failed in a Brittle Manner. Fracture, at Two Different
The fracture path is Magnifications. Grains and
transgranular (through the Grain Boundaries are Clearly
grains). Compare this surface Vis ible in this Micrograph.
with the ductile fracture The Fracture Path is along the
surface shown in Figure 3.23 Grain Boundaries.
slide in 28 Magnification: Magnification: Left, 100×;
200×. Source: Packer Right, 500×. Source: Packer
Engineering Associates, Inc. Engineering Associates, Inc.

Mode I Mode II Mode III

Figure 3.29 Three Modes of Fracture. (a) Mode I has been

studied extensively, because it is the most commonly observed
in engineering structures and components. (b) Mode II is rare,
but is seen in some wear modes and packaging. (c) Mode III is
the tearing process; examples include pull tabs on food cans,
tearing a piece of paper and cutting materials with a pair of
scissors.
Sample : Wooden chopsticks © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
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Brittle Fracture (2)

▪ Fatigue fracture
▪ beach marks, striations

Figure 3.31 Reduction in Fatigue Strength of Cast Steels Subjected to Various

Figure 3.30 Typical Fatigue Fracture Surface on Metals, Showing Surface-Finishing Operations. Note that the Reduction is Greater as the Surface
Beach Marks. Most Components in Machines and Engines Fail by Roughness and Strength of the Steel Increase
Fatigue and Not by Excessive Static Loading. Magnification: Left,
500×; Right, 1000×. Source: Packer Engineering Associates, Inc.
© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
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Brittle Fracture (3)

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Example of Failure by Fracture

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Physical Properties
▪ Density
▪ Melting point
▪ Specific heat
▪ Thermal conductivity
▪ CTE

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Ferrous Alloys
▪ Carbon steel
▪ More carbon, higher hardenability, strength,
hardness, wear resistance, lower ductility,
weldability, toughness
▪ Low-carbon steel (<0.3%)
▪ Medium-carbon steel (0.3~0.6%)
▪ High-carbon steel (>0.6%)

▪ Alloy steel

Carbon steel, Car parts.

https://www.carwow.co.uk/guides/glossary/car-materials-explained © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Ferrous Alloys (2)

▪ Stainless steel
▪ Chromium oxide film

Table 3.4 Room-Temperature Mechanical Properties and Typical Applications of Annealed

Stainless Steels

Stainless steel
Water tank

http://ancoequipment.com/stainless-steel-storage-tanks.html © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Ferrous Alloys (3)

▪ Tool and die steel
▪ High Speed Steel (HSS)

High Speed Steel

Cutting tool

https://www.axminster.co.uk/high-speed-steel-tool-bit-set-700367 © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys

▪ High strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion resistance, high thermal and electrical conductivity
Table 3.4 Room-Temperature Mechanical Properties and Typical Applications of
Annealed Stainless Steels

Aluminum 6061
Smart phone

https://www.theverge.com/2015/9/12/9315471/iphone-6s-new-aluminum-doesnt-make-phone-heavier © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys (2)

Table 3.6 Manufacturing Properties and Typical Applications of Wrought Aluminum Alloys.
*From A (excellent) to D (poor).

Aluminum 7005
Airplane

https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=12084 © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys

▪ Lightest engineering metal, good vibration-damping characteristics
Table 3.7 Properties and Typical Forms of Selected Wrought Magnesium Alloys

Magnesium alloy
Notebook case

https://www.howtogeek.com/307165/next-gen-laptop-materials-aluminum-alloy-vs-magnesium-alloy-vs-carbon-fiber/ © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Copper and Copper Alloys

▪ Best conductors of electricity and heat
Table 3.8 Properties and Typical Applications of Various Wrought Copper and Brasses

Copper
Wire

https://parawire.com/craft-store/bare-copper-wire/ © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Copper and Copper Alloys

▪ Best conductors of electricity and heat
Table 3.9 Properties and Typical Applications of Various Wrought Bronzes

Copper
Heatsink

https://www.zapsonline.com/memory-cool/61841-vizo-cps12-copper-heatsink-for-chipset-or-memory-chips.html © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Nickel and Nickel Alloys

▪ High strength, toughness, corrosion resistance
Table 3.10 Properties and Typical Applications of Various Nickel Alloys. All Alloy Names
are Trade Names

Nickel Alloy
Coin

https://www.pcgs.com/news/which-coin-alloy-is-the-most © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Superalloys
▪ Heat resistance, high temperature
Table 3.11 Properties and Typical Applications of Various Nickel-Base Superalloys at 870°Celsius
(1600°Fahrenheit). All Alloy Names are Trade Names

Superalloy
Jet engine turbine blade

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superalloy © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Titanium and Titanium Alloys

▪ High strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion resistance
Table 3.12 Properties and Typical Applications of Wrought Titanium Alloys

Titanium
Glasses frame

http://titaniumoptix.com/glasses/men/springfield-titanium-round-frames/ © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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High/Low Melting Temperature

▪ Refractory metals
▪ Molybdenum (2,623 °C)
▪ Niobium (2,469 °C)
▪ Tungsten (3,422 °C)
▪ Tantalum (3,020 °C)

▪ Low melting point metals Tungsten Heater Tantalum

▪ Lead (327.46 °C) Tank

▪ Zinc (419.53 °C)

▪ Tin (231.9 °C)
▪ Bismuth (271.5 °C)
▪ Indium (156.60 °C)

http://www.finesgas.com/details/outdoor_living/patio_heaters/bromic_tungsten_electric
https://www.thomasnet.com/profile/01300369/titan-metal-fabricators.html
https://www.grainger.com/content/supplylink-how-to-solder © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon