Main Methods in Qualitative Research

Focus on descriptive, observational, conceptual, and analytical methods

1. Individual Interviews: Rigorous conversations to elicit necessary information

2. Group Interviews: Simultaneous discussions on community issues or shared
experiences
3. Observations: Documenting and analyzing behavior and social phenomena

Common Research Designs

1. Phenomenological Design: Analyzes lived experiences, focuses on individual
meaning
2. Historical Design: Examines past data to confirm or reject hypotheses
3. Case Study Design: In-depth review of an individual, group, or institution
4. Grounded Theory Design: Develops theory based on systematically collected
data
5. Action Research Design: Cycles of identifying problems and implementing
interventions
6. Meta-Analysis Design: Evaluates multiple studies to summarize and develop
new insights

Planning Research Designs

l. Establish purpose and benefits of research

II. Choose methods and strategies

III. Define scope and delimitations

IV. Identify nature of required data

V. Plan for data size and intended results

Stages of the Project

1. Conceptualizing Stage: Literature review and critique planning
2. Data Management Setup: Organizing data collection process
3. Sampling: Ensuring appropriate subjects are found
4. Data Collection: Implement chosen methods during fieldwork
5. Analysis: Enable thorough coding and categorization of data
Sampling in Research
*Sampling is a process through which a researcher selects a portion or segment from
the population at the center of the research study.

*Population refers to a group of persons or objects that possess some common

characteristics that are of interest to the researcher and about which the researcher
seeks to learn more.

*Target Population comprises the entire group of people or objects to which the
researcher wishes to generalize the findings of the study.

*Accessible Population refers to a portion of the population to which the researcher

has reasonable access.

*Researchers commonly select a sample for the study rather than the entire population
due to constraints in budget, time, and manpower.

*Respondents are individuals or groups of people who actively serve as sources of

information during data collection.

*Statistics is a numerical description of a sample.

*Parameter is a numerical description of a population.

Factors to Consider in Determining the Sample Size

Homogeneity of the population: The higher the degree of homogeneity, the smaller
the sample size that can be utilized.

Degree of precision desired by the researcher: The larger the sample size, the
higher the precision or accuracy of the results.

Types of Sampling Procedures

1. Probability Sampling

A type of sampling in which all members of an entire population have a chance of being
selected.

a. Simple Random Sampling

• A method of choosing samples in which all members of the
population are given an equal chance of being selected.
 • Example: Fishbowl method & roulette wheel.
b. Stratified Random Sampling
• The population is first divided into different strata, and then
sampling follows.
• Example: A researcher studying the effects of smoking on high
school students selects equal numbers of students from
freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior levels.
c. Cluster Sampling
• Used in large-scale studies where the population is
geographically spread out.
• Example: A researcher selects regions (first cluster), then schools
(second cluster), and then a number of teachers.
d. Systematic Sampling
• A method of selecting every nth element of a population.
• Example: Selecting every fifth, eighth, ninth, or eleventh element
until the desired sample size is reached.

2. Non-Probability Sampling
A process of selecting respondents in which not all members of the entire population are
given a chance of being selected as samples.

a. Convenience Sampling
• Also called accidental or incidental sampling.
• Example: A researcher intends to study elementary students of a
particular school and selects students who are present at that
time due to restraints.
b. Quota Sampling
• Similar to stratified sampling but with fixed quotas.
• Example: A researcher surveys employees in a company but
limits the count from smaller departments to maintain balance.
c. Purposive Sampling
• Involves handpicking subjects to suit specific intentions.
• Example: In a study of honor students, the researcher selects
respondents exclusively from a list of honor students.

Research Data
Research data refers to the kinds of information researchers obtain from the subjects of
their research.

Four Main Types of Data

1. Observational Data

-Data captured through observation of a behavior or activity.

-Collected using methods such as human observation, open-ended surveys or

instruments/sensors to monitor and record information.

2. Experimental Data

-Data collected through active intervention by the researcher to produce and

measure change when a variable is altered.

-Typically allows the researcher to determine causal relationships and is

projectable to a larger population.

3. Simulation Data

-Data generated by imitating the operation of a real-world process or system

over time.

-Used to determine what would or could happen under certain conditions.

4. Derived or Compiled Data

-Involves using existing data points from different sources to create new data
through transformation (e.g., arithmetic formulas for aggregation).

Steps in Creating a Data Collection Plan

1. Identify the questions that you want to answer.
2. Determine the kind of data that is available.
3. Determine how much data is needed.
4. Determine how to measure the data.
5. Decide who is going to collect the data.
6. Determine where the data will be collected from.
7. Decide whether to measure a sample or the whole population.
8. Determine in what format the data will be displayed.
Types of Questions in Data Collection
1. Yes or No Type

• Items are answerable by a simple yes or no.

• Example: Do call center agents have the right to refuse calls? () YES () NO

2. Recognition Type

• Fixed alternative answers are provided, and respondents choose from the given
choices.

• Example: Educational Qualification:

• () Elementary Graduate
• () High School Graduate
• () College Graduate
3. Completion Type

• Respondents fill in the blanks with necessary information (open-ended questions).

• Example: As a teacher, after seeing a misbehavior done by a pupil, I will _______

4. Coding Type

• Numbers are assigned to names, choices, or other pertinent data

• Example: On a scale of 1 to 10, how will you rate your student’s communication
skills?

5. Subjective Type

• Respondents are free to express their opinions on an issue of concem.

•Example: What can you say about teachers who are deeply committed to their
work?

VALIDITY
Validity refers to the extent to which a research instrument measures what it is
supposed to measure.

Types of Validity
 1. Face Validity
• Also known as logical validity, it involves an analysis of whether the
instrument is using a valid scale.
2. Content Validity
• The extent to which a research instrument accurately measures all
aspects of a construct.
3. Construct Validity
• The extent to which a research instrument measures the intended
construct
4. Criterion-Related Validity
• The extent to which a research instrument is related to other instruments
that measure the same variables.

RELIABILITY
Reliability refers to the consistency of a research instrument in measuring what it is
intended to measure.

Methods in Establishing Reliability

1. Test-Retest or Stability
• The same test is given to a group of respondents twice. The scores from
the first test are correlated with the scores from the second test.
2. Internal Consistency
• A single basic concept where it is reasonable to assume that a respondent
who gets one item right is likely to be right in another similar item.

OTHER CRITERIA FOR ASSESSING VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

Precision

*The instrument should discriminate among people who exhibit varying degrees of an
attribute as precisely possible.
Reactivity

*The instrument should avoid affecting the attribute being measured as much as
possible.

Range
*The instrument should be capable of detecting the smallest expected value of the
variable to the largest, to obtain meaningful measurements.

Linearity

*The researcher normally strives to construct measures that are equally accurate and
sensitive over the entire range of values.

Speed

*The researchers should not rush the measuring process so that he or she can obtain

reliable measurements.
Sensitivity

*The instrument should be able to identify a case correctly, i.e., to screen or diagnose a

condition correctly.

Specificity

*The instrument should be able to identify a non- case correctly, i.e., to screen out those
without the conditions correctly.

Comprehensibility

*Subjects and researchers should be able to comprehend the behavior required for
accurate and valid measurements.

Four types of measurement scales:

Nominal Scale- researchers simply assign numbers to different categories in order to
show differences.
Ordinal Scale- one in which data may be ordered in some way (high to low or least to
most)

Interval Scales- possesses all the characteristics of an ordinal scale with one additional
feature: the distances between the points on the scale are equal.

Ratio Scales- an interval scale that does possess an actual or true zero point.