Global Academy of Technology

Department of Civil Engineering

Environmental Studies- CIV23508
Module-1: Ecosystem and Sustainability Ecosystem: Structure of Ecosystem, Types: Forest,
Desert, Wetlands, Riverine, Oceanic ecosystems. Sustainability: 17SDG targets and possible
actions. Self-Study Component (SSC): Components of the environment.

Ecosystem: Ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of plants, animals and microorganisms in

an area functioning together with all the non-living physical factors of the environment.

An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in a

particular area. The term `eco' refers to a part of the world and `system' refers to the co-
ordinating units. An ecosystem is a community of organisms and their physical environment
interacting together.

Classification of Ecosystem:

It is classified into following categories:

1. Natural Ecosystem
2. Man-made Ecosystem

A natural ecosystem is a community of living and non-living organisms that interact with
each other through biological, physical, and chemical processes. These ecosystems are
formed naturally and are not influenced by human activity. Some examples of natural
ecosystems include- oceans, lakes, rivers, forests, peat bogs, high mountain habitats, and
deserts.

Natural ecosystems are self-sufficient systems. For example, in a forest, herbivores eat
grass, fruits, and seeds, and are then eaten by carnivores. When carnivores die, their bodies
decompose into the soil, providing nutrients for the growth of trees and grass. This process
continues the biological cycle.

Following figure shows Natural Ecosystem comprising Forest, Ocean, lake, Desert.

In natural Ecosystem plants of one species are often scattered. They usually have alternate
sources of food available if fails. These ate developed under the natural conditions consisting

1
of inorganic nutrients from soil and return back after every actions, with no distinct
boundaries.

Fig: Natural Ecosystem

Artificial Ecosystem:
Ecosystem which are Engineered by man are known as artificial ecosystem. Examples:
gardens, manmade lakes, agricultural fields.

In this type of ecosystem plants of the small species grow in close proximity, with less
options of food choices.

It is created by human being and can be manipulated by human activities, inorganic nutrients
doesn’t return to soil but they are carried away to the other places. The boundaries are set in
this type of ecosystem.

Structure of an Ecosystem:

The Structure includes Biotic and Abiotic components.

Biotic Components : refer to all life in an ecosystem. Based on nutrition, biotic components
can be categorised into autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or decomposers).

 Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called autotrophs as they can
produce food through the process of photosynthesis. Consequently, all other
organisms higher up on the food chain rely on producers for food.

2
  Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms for food.
Consumers are further classified into primary consumers, secondary consumers and
tertiary consumers. Primary consumers are always herbivores that they rely on
producers for food. Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy.
They can either be a carnivore or an omnivore. Tertiary consumers are organisms that
depend on secondary consumers for food. consumers can also be an omnivore.
Quaternary consumers are present in some food chains. These organisms prey on
tertiary consumers for energy. Furthermore, they are usually at the top of a food chain
as they have no natural predators.
 Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly thrive on
the dead and decaying organic matter. Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem
as they help in recycling nutrients to be reused by plants.
 Abiotic Components: are the non-living component of an ecosystem. It includes
Physical, chemical, limiting factors like air, water, soil, minerals, sunlight,
temperature, nutrients, wind, altitude, turbidity, etc.

Fig: Structure of an ecosystem

Functions of Ecosystems:

Food Chain

Food Web

3
Energy Flow

Ecological pyramid

Food Chain:

The sun is the ultimate source of energy on earth. It provides the energy required for
all plant life. The plants utilise this energy for the process of photosynthesis, which is used to
synthesise their food. During this biological process, light energy is converted into chemical
energy and is passed on through successive levels. The flow of energy from a producer, to a
consumer and eventually, to an apex predator or a detritivore is called the food chain.

Dead and decaying matter, along with organic debris, is broken down into its
constituents by scavengers. The reducers then absorb these constituents. After gaining the
energy, the reducers liberate molecules to the environment, which can be utilised again by the
producers.

The food chain is an ideal representation of flow of energy in the ecosystem.

▪ In food chain, the plants or producers are consumed by only the primary consumers,
primary consumers are fed by only the secondary consumers and so on.

▪ The producers that are capable to produce their own food are called autotrophs.

4
 ▪ Any food chain consists of three main tropic levels, viz., producers, consumers and
decomposers. ▪ The energy efficiency of each tropic level is very low. Hence, shorter the
food chain greater will be the accessibility of food.

▪ The typical food chain in a ground ecosystem proceeds as

grass—————-> mouse—————-> snake ————> hawk.

▪ Food webs are more complex and are interrelated at different tropic levels.

▪ Organisms have more than one choice for food and hence can survive better.

▪ Hawks don’t restrict their food to snakes, snakes eat animals other than mice, and mice eat
grass as well as grasshoppers, and so on.

▪ A more realistic illustration of feeding habits in an ecosystem is called a food web.

Food Web:

Charles Elton presented the food web concept in year 1927, which he termed as food
cycle. Charles Elton described the concept of food web as: The carnivore animals prey on
the herbivores. These herbivores obtain the energy from sunlight. The later carnivores may
also be preyed upon by other carnivores. Until a reach where an animal has no enemies it
forms a terminus on this food cycle. There are chains of animals that are related together by
food, and all are dependent on plants in the long run. This is termed as a food chain and all
the food chains in a community is known as the food web. A food web is a graphical
depiction of feeding connections among species of an ecological community. Food web
includes food chains of a particular ecosystem. The food web is an illustration of various
techniques of feeding that links the ecosystem. The food web also explains the energy flow
through species of a community as a result of their feeding relationships. All the food chains
are interconnected and overlapping within an ecosystem and they constitute a food web. In
natural environment or an ecosystem, the relationships between the food chains are
interrelated. These relationships are very complex, as one organism may be a part of multiple
food chains. Hence, a web like structure is formed in place of a linear food chain. The web
like structure if formed with the interlinked food chain and such matrix that is interconnected
is known as a food web. Food webs are an inseparable part of an ecosystem; these food webs
permit an organism to obtain food from more than one type of organism of the lower trophic
level.

5
Ecological pyramids :

The trophic levels of different organisms based on their ecological position as

producer to final consumer is represented by ecological pyramid. The food producer is
present at the base of the pyramid and on the top. Other consumer trophic levels are present
in between. The pyramid includes a number of horizontal bars presenting specific trophic
levels. The length of each bar stands for the total number of individuals or biomass or energy
at each trophic level in an ecosystem. An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation
outlined to show the biomass or bio productivity at each trophic level in a given ecosystem.
These are trophic pyramid, energy pyramid, or sometimes food pyramid. Biomass is the
quantity of living or organic matter present in an organism. Biomass pyramids represent the
amount of biomass, and how much of it is present in the organisms at each trophic level. The
productivity pyramids shows the production or turnover in biomass. Ecological pyramids
initiates with producers on the bottom such as green plants and proceed through the various
trophic levels such as herbivores that feed on plants, then carnivores that feed on herbivores,
then carnivores that feed those carnivores, and so on. The highest level is shown at the top of
the chain. An ecological pyramid of biomass represents the relationship between biomass and
trophic level by quantifying the biomass present at each trophic level of an ecological
community at a particular time. It is a graphical representation of biomass present in per unit
area in different trophic levels. Flow of energy through the food chain will be in a predictable
way, entering at the base of the food chain, by photosynthesis in primary producers, and then
moving up the food chain to higher trophic levels. The transfer of energy from one trophic
level to the next is not efficient. It may also be useful and productive to analyse how the
number and biomass of organisms differs across trophic levels. Both the number and biomass
of organisms at each trophic level should be affected by the amount of energy joining that
trophic level. When there is a direct correlation between energy, numbers, and biomass then
biomass pyramids and numbers pyramids will be formed. However, the relationship between
energy, biomass, and number can be complex by the growth form and size of organisms and
ecological relationships occurring among trophic levels.

6
Energy Flow:
Energy flow in an ecosystem is the movement of energy through a series of
organisms, from producers to consumers. The sun is the primary source of energy for most
ecosystems, with the exception of deep sea hydrothermal ecosystems.

some key points about energy flow in an ecosystem:

 Producers: Use photosynthesis or chemosynthesis to create their own food.

 Food chains: Organize organisms into trophic levels, with producers at the base and
consumers at the top.

 Energy transfer: Only about 10% of energy is passed on from one trophic level to
the next, with the remaining 90% lost as heat. This is known as the 10% law of energy
transfer.

 Food webs: Show how energy can flow between organisms in different food chains.

 Energy flow direction: Energy flow is unidirectional, with the head of an arrow
indicating the direction of energy flow.

 Energy conversion: Energy conversion is never completely efficient, and most

energy is lost as heat.

7
  Chemoautotrophs: These bacteria are found in ecosystems where sunlight is not
available, such as hydrothermal vents. They use hydrogen sulfide as a source of
chemical energy.

Forest Ecosystem:

A forest ecosystem is a community of living and nonliving things that interact with each
other in a forest:

 Living components: Plants, animals, and other living things

 Nonliving components: Soil, water, air, and landforms

Forest ecosystems are the largest terrestrial ecosystems, covering about 38 million square
kilometers. They are characterized by:

 Interdependence

All organisms in a forest ecosystem are interdependent on each other for survival.

 Food chains

Food chains move energy, water, carbon, air, and nutrients through the ecosystem.

 Food webs

Several food chains linked together are known as a food web.

 Ecological roles

8
Organisms can be broadly classified as producers, consumers, and decomposers.

Forest ecosystems are important because they:

 Protect soil and water: Healthy forest ecosystems produce and conserve soil, and
stabilize stream flows and water runoff.

 Prevent land degradation: Healthy forest ecosystems prevent land degradation and
desertification.

 Reduce the risk of natural disasters: Healthy forest ecosystems reduce the risks of
natural disasters such as droughts, floods, and landslides.

 Provide material resources: Forests provide many material resources, such as timber
and by-products.

Forest ecosystems are threatened by air pollution, fires, climate change, biological invasions,
deforestation, grazing, and burning wasteland for cultivation.

Characteristics of Forest Ecosystem:

1. Warm temperatures and sufficient rainfall are characteristics of forests, resulting in

the formation of numerous ponds, lakes, etc.
2. The forest maintains climate and rainfall.
3. The forest supports many wild animals and protects biodiversity.
4. The soil is rich in organic matter and nutrients, which support the growth of trees.

Functions of forest ecosystem:

1. Goods Obtained from Forests: There are various types of food products such as
honey, wild meat, fruits, mushrooms, palm oil and wine, and medicinal plants obtained
from forests. Other than edible parts, we can obtain timber, wood biomass, cork, etc.
from forests. The fuel can be extracted from old trees that are buried under the soil.

2. Ecological Functions: Forests play an important role in maintaining ecological

factors such as climate, carbon storage, nutrient cycling, and rainfall.

3. Culture and Social Benefits: The tribal people who live in the forests treat forests as
nature goddesses. The traditional beliefs and spirituality save wild animals from hunters

9
and cutting down of trees by urban people. A few modern people visit forests for
recreation.

Grass land ecosystem:

A grassland ecosystem is a large area of land with grasses and small shrubs spread out
over a vast area. Here are some characteristics of grasslands:

Vegetation: Grasslands are dominated by grasses, with some shrubs and small trees.

Climate: Grasslands have a semi-arid climate with insufficient rainfall and soil to
support significant tree growth.

Location: Grasslands are most common in mid-latitudes and near the interiors of
continents. They can be found on every continent except Antarctica.

Uses: Grasslands are often used for agriculture.

Types: There are many types of grasslands, including tropical, temperate, flooded, and
montane:

Tropical grasslands: Also called savannas, these grasslands are warm all year and receive
50 cm to 130 cm of rain. They contain shrubs and small trees.

Flooded grasslands: These grasslands are characterized by a wet climate and are flooded
all year. They are home to a variety of sea-bearing plants, birds, and fish.

Temperate grasslands: These grasslands have cold winters and warm summers with some
rain. A few trees may be found along the streams.

Montane grasslands: These grasslands are found in mountainous regions and are based
on soil and rock type, and the slope of the mountain.

Desert Ecosystem:

A desert ecosystem is a dry environment with little vegetation, extreme temperatures,

and low precipitation:

10
Precipitation: Deserts receive less than 10 inches of precipitation per year, and the
rainfall is seasonal.

Temperature: Deserts can be hot and arid or extremely cold, with hot days and very cold
nights.

Humidity: Humidity levels are low during the day and high at night.

Wind: High wind velocity can cause dust and sandstorms.

Deserts cover one-fifth of the Earth's surface. There are many types of deserts, including:

Hot deserts: The Sahara Desert in Africa and the Mohave Desert in the USA

Cold deserts: The Arctic circle and Antarctica

Coastal deserts: The Atacama Desert in Chile and the Nambi Desert in Africa

Semi-arid deserts: Montana, Utah, and Greenland

Some animals that live in deserts include:

Bactrian camel: Found in the Gobi Desert in China and Mongolia, this camel has two
humps on its back filled with fat.

Gila monster: A unique animal found in the Sonoran Desert in the Southwest United
States.

Saguaro cacti: A unique plant found in the Sonoran Desert in the Southwest United
States.

11
Wetlands Ecosystem or Pond Ecosystem:

• Abiotic Components: includes organic and inorganic substances, atmospheric gases

dissolved in water, minerals found in dissolved state.

• Biotic components: Producers: Submerged, floating aquatic plants, Consumers: may

be primary, secondary, eq. small fish, beetles. Decomposers: Bacteria are the main
sources for this.

Wetlands are characterized by the presence of water, hydrophytes, and hydric soil:

Water: Wetlands must have water during the growing season each year.

Hydrophytes: These are plants that are specially adapted to highly saturated areas.

Hydric soil: This is saturated soil that remains flooded for so long that it becomes anaerobic.

Some types of wetlands include:

Marshes

These wetlands are typically filled by surface water run-off or groundwater, and can be either
freshwater or saltwater.

Swamps

These wetlands are forested, low, spongy land that is generally saturated with water and
covered with trees and aquatic plants.

12
Bogs

These freshwater wetlands are made up of soft, spongy ground consisting mainly of partially
decayed plant matter called peat.

Fens

These wetlands are peat-forming wetlands that rely on groundwater input. They are hotspots
of biodiversity and are often home to rare plants, insects, and small mammals.

Estuaries

These coastal wetlands are where freshwater from rivers and streams mixes with the saltwater
from the ocean.

High altitude wetlands

These wetlands are found mainly in the higher elevations in the Himalayan region. They are
characterized by an adverse climate and the presence of a seasonal or diurnal permafrost
layer.

Lakes

These wetlands combine terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

Ocean Ecosystem:

The ocean ecosystem is the largest aquatic ecosystem and is home to a wide variety of living
organisms. Some of the important parts of the ocean ecosystem include:

Coral reefs

These are home to a wide range of marine plants and wildlife, and protect beaches from
erosion.

Mangroves

These are found in the inter-tidal zone of river estuaries and are nourished by tidal water and
terrestrial water.

Kelp forests

These are underwater forests formed by kelp, a type of seaweed, and are home to thousands
of species.

13
Estuaries

These are productive ecosystems that receive nutrients from both bodies of water and support
a variety of life.

Sandy beaches

These are dynamic ecosystems that provide habitats for many species of plants and animals,
including clams, snails, crabs, and worms.

Seagrass meadows

These are essential for carbon capture and provide habitats for young fish, seahorses, and
jellyfish.

Abyssal water column

This ecosystem is found in very deep ocean waters, where living things must live with little
or no light, little oxygen, and in very cold temperatures.

Riverine Ecosystem:

A riverine ecosystem is a flowing body of water, such as a river, stream, or spring, that
includes the living and non-living parts of the ecosystem:

Living parts: The plants, animals, and microorganisms that interact with each other

Non-living parts: The physical and chemical interactions of the water, such as temperature,
turbidity, and dissolved materials

Riverine ecosystems are part of larger watersheds that can include small headwaters, streams,
and rivers. They are influenced by a variety of factors, including:

Climate change: Global climate change can impact river ecosystems

Pollution: Pollution can impact river ecosystems

Economics: National and global economies can impact river ecosystems

Nonnative biota: Nonnative species can impact river ecosystems

Riverine ecosystems are important for many reasons, including:

14
Drinking water: Healthy rivers provide drinking water

Irrigation: Healthy rivers provide water for irrigating crops

Fish populations: Healthy rivers keep fish populations healthy

Recreation: Healthy rivers provide opportunities for recreation

River environment - EcoShape

Different areas of a river provide habitats for different types of species. For example, trout
thrive in highland streams, while catfish live in slow-moving water near the bottom.

SDG’s: Sustainable Development Goals:

• The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) aim to transform our world.

• They are a call to action to end poverty and inequality, protect the planet, and ensure
that all people enjoy health, justice and prosperity.

• It is critical that no one is left behind.

The following are the list of Sustainable Development Goals:

1. No poverty
2. Zero hunger
3. Good health and well being
4. Quality education

15
 5. Gender equality
6. Clean water and sanitation
7. Affordable and clean energy
8. Decent work and economic growth
9. Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure
10. Reduced inequalities
11. Sustainable cities and communities
12. Responsible production and consumption
13. Climate action
14. Life below water
15. Life on land
16. Peace, justice and institutions
17. Partnership for the Goals.
Goal 1:
It is an ambitious goal and aimed to end poverty in all its form everywhere.
 In the year 2000 world committed to reduce the poverty line throughout the globe, by
2015 its report was submitted to United Nations.
 The report stated that more than 800 million people around the world still has the
problem of poverty.
 About 120 events are conducted to reach the goal with 7 targets and about 120 events
were conducted around the globe.

Goal 2:

 End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote
sustainable agriculture
 Concentrating on Rural Development
 Concentrating on food security, nutrition and sustainable agriculture.
 In the past 20 years, hunger has dropped by almost half.
 Many countries that used to suffer from famine and hunger can now meet the
nutritional needs of their most vulnerable people.
 Imagine a world where everyone has access to sufficient and nutritious food all year
round. Together, we can make that a reality by 2030.

Goal 3:

16
 We all know how important it is to be in good health.
 Our health affects everything from how much we enjoy life to what work we can
perform.
 That’s why there’s a Goal to make sure everyone has health coverage and access to
safe and effective medicines and vaccines.
 In the 25 years before the SDGs, we made big strides—preventable child deaths
dropped by more than half, and maternal mortality went down by almost as much.
 6 million children die every year before their fifth birthday, or that AIDS is the
leading cause of death for adolescents in sub-Saharan Africa. We have the means to
turn that around and make good health more than just a wish.

Goal 4:

 Poverty, armed conflict and other emergencies keep many, many kids around the
world out of school.
 In fact, kids from the poorest households are four times more likely to be out of
school than those of the richest households.
 Since 2000, there has been enormous progress on the goal to provide primary
education to all children worldwide: the total enrolment rate in developing regions has
reached 91%.

Goal 5:

 End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere.
 Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private
spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation.
 Recognize and value unpaid care and domestic work through the provision of public
services, infrastructure and social protection policies and the promotion of shared
responsibility within the household and the family as nationally appropriate .
 Undertake reforms to give women equal rights to economic resources, as well as
access to ownership and control over land and other forms of property, financial
services, inheritance and natural resources, in accordance with national laws.

Goal 6:

 achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all.

17
 To improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing
release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated
wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally.
 implement integrated water resources management at all levels.
 protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands,
rivers, aquifers and lakes.
 Support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water and
sanitation management.

Goal 7:

 Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all.
 ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services.
 double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency.
 enhance international cooperation to facilitate access to clean energy research and
technology, including renewable energy, energy efficiency and advanced and cleaner
fossil-fuel technology, and promote investment in energy infrastructure and clean
energy technology .

Goal 8:

 Sustain per capita economic growth in accordance with national circumstances and, in
particular, at least 7 per cent gross domestic product growth per annum in the least
developed countries.
 Achieve higher levels of economic productivity through diversification, technological
upgrading and innovation, including through a focus on high-value added and labor-
intensive sectors
 Improve progressively, through 2030, global resource efficiency in consumption and
production and endeavor to decouple economic growth from environmental
degradation.
 , achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all women and men,
including for young people and persons with disabilities, and equal pay for work of
equal value.
 Strengthen the capacity of domestic financial institutions to encourage and expand
access to banking, insurance and financial services for all.
Goal 9:

18
 Develop quality, reliable, sustainable and resilient infrastructure, including regional
and trans border infrastructure, to support economic development and human
wellbeing, with a focus on affordable and equitable access for all.
 Increase the access of small-scale industrial and other enterprises, in particular in
developing countries, to financial services, including affordable credit.
 Facilitate sustainable and resilient infrastructure development in developing countries
through enhanced financial, technological and technical support to African countries,
least developed countries, landlocked developing countries and small island
developing States
 Significantly increase access to information and communications technology and
strive to provide universal and affordable access to the Internet.

Goal 10:

 progressively achieve and sustain income growth of the bottom 40 per cent of the
population at a rate higher than the national average.
 Ensure equal opportunity and reduce inequalities of outcome, including by
eliminating discriminatory laws, policies and practices and promoting appropriate
legislation, policies and action in this regard.
 Ensure enhanced representation and voice for developing countries in decision-
making in global international economic and financial institutions in order to deliver
more effective, credible, accountable.
 Encourage official development assistance and financial flows, including foreign
direct investment, to States where the need is greatest.
Goal 11:
• ensure access for all to adequate, safe and affordable housing and basic services and
upgrade slums.
• provide access to safe, affordable, accessible and sustainable transport systems for all,
improving road safety, notably by expanding public transport, with special attention
to the needs of those in vulnerable situations, women, children, persons with
disabilities and older persons.
• Strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and natural heritage.
• reduce the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities, including by paying
special attention to air quality and municipal and other waste management.

19
 Goal 12:
• Implement the 10-Year Framework of Programs on Sustainable Consumption and
Production Patterns, all countries taking action, with developed countries taking the
lead, taking into account the development and capabilities of developing countries.
• achieve the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources
• Promote public procurement practices that are sustainable, in accordance with
national policies and priorities.
• Develop and implement tools to monitor sustainable development impacts for
sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products
Goal 13:
• Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural
disasters in all countries
• Improve education, awareness-raising and human and institutional capacity on climate
change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning
• Promote mechanisms for raising capacity for effective climate change-related
planning and management in least developed countries and small island developing
States, including focusing on women, youth and local and marginalized communities
Goal 14:
• prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in particular from land-
based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution
• effectively regulate harvesting and end overfishing, illegal, unreported and
unregulated fishing and destructive fishing practices and implement science-based
management plans, in order to restore fish stocks in the shortest time feasible, at least
to levels that can produce maximum sustainable yield as determined by their
biological characteristics
• Increase scientific knowledge, develop research capacity and transfer marine
technology
• Enhance the conservation and sustainable use of oceans and their resources by
implementing international law as reflected in the United Nations Convention on the
Law of the Sea, which provides the legal framework for the conservation and
sustainable use of oceans and their resources.

20
 Goal 15:
• ensure the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial and inland
freshwater ecosystems and their services, in particular forests, wetlands, mountains
and drylands, in line with obligations under international agreements
• promote the implementation of sustainable Management of all type of forests.
• Take urgent action to end poaching and trafficking of protected species of flora and
fauna
• Enhance global support for efforts to combat poaching and trafficking of protected
species.
Goal 16:
• Promote the rule of law at the national and international levels and ensure equal
access to justice for all
• Ensure responsive, inclusive, participatory and representative decision making at all
levels
• provide legal identity for all, including birth registration
• Promote and enforce non-discriminatory laws and policies for sustainable
development
Goal 17:
• Strengthen domestic resource mobilization, including through international support to
developing countries, to improve domestic capacity for tax and other revenue
collection.
• Enhance North-South, South-South and triangular regional and international
cooperation on and access to science, technology and innovation and enhance
knowledge sharing on mutually agreed terms.
• Enhance international support for implementing effective and targeted capacity-
building in developing countries to support national plans to implement all the
Sustainable Development Goals.

21