Manufacturing Processes for

Plastic Products
ANCHANA W.
Shaping Processes for Plastics
• Plastics can be shaped into a wide variety of products and
several reasons why the plastic-shaping processes are
important:
✦ The variety of shaping processes, allows an almost
unlimited variety of part geometries to be formed.
✦ Many plastic parts are formed by molding, which is a
net shape process.
✦ Heating is usually required to form plastics which is
much lower than forming metals, resulting in handling
of the product is simplified during production.
✦
Finishing by painting or plating is not required (except in
unusual circumstances) for plastics.
✦
Examples of shaping processes for plastics: extrusion,
injection molding, compression molding, transfer
molding, blow molding, thermoforming
 containing the feedstock is located at the end of the barrel opposite the die. The pellets are
fed by gravity onto the rotating screw whose turning moves the material along the barrel.
Electric heaters are used to initially melt the solid pellets; subsequent mixing and

Extrusion
mechanical working of the material generate additional heat, which maintains the melt.
In some cases, enough heat is supplied through the mixing and shearing action that external
heating is not required. Indeed, in some cases the barrel must be externally cooled to
prevent overheating of the polymer.
The material is conveyed through the barrel toward the die opening by the action of
the extruder screw, which rotates at about 60 rev/min. The screw serves several functions
and is divided into sections that correspond to these functions. The sections and functions
• Extrusion is a compression process in which material is
are the (1) feed section, in which the stock is moved from the hopper port and preheated;
(2) compression section, where the polymer is transformed into liquid consistency, air
forced to flow through a die orifice to provide long continuous
entrapped amongst the pellets is extracted from the melt, and the material is compressed;
and (3) metering section, in which the melt is homogenized and sufficient pressure is
product whose cross-sectional shape is determined by the
developed to pump it through the die opening.

shape of the orifice.

FIGURE 13.4
Components and features of a (single screw) extruder
Components and features of a (single-screw) extruder for plastics and elastomers.
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Extruded products
 in Figure 13.8. Just beyond the end of the screw and before the die, the polymer melt passes
through the screen pack and breaker plate to straighten the flow lines. Then it flows into a
(usually) converging die entrance, the shape designed to maintain laminar flow and avoid
dead spots in the corners that would otherwise be present near the orifice. The melt then

DIE CONFIGURATIONS flows through the die opening itself.

When the material exits the die, it is still soft. Polymers with high melt viscosities are
the best candidates for extrusion, because they hold shape better during cooling. Cooling is
accomplished by air blowing, water spray, or passing the extrudate through a water trough.
• Solid profiles

(a) Side
FIGURE 13.8 view
(a) Side viewcross section
cross section ofextrusion
of an an extrusion dieregular
die for solid for solid regular
shapes, such asshapes;
round stock; (b) front
(b) front view of die, with profile of extrudate
view of die, with profile of extrudate. Die swell is evident in both views. (Some die construction details are simplified or
omitted for clarity.)
 cross sections containing holes, requires a mandrel to form the hollow shape. A typical die
configuration is shown in Figure 13.10. The mandrel is held in place using a spider, seen in
Section A-A of the figure. The polymer melt flows around the legs supporting the
mandrel to reunite into a monolithic tube wall. The mandrel often includes an air channel
• Hollow profiles through which air is blown to maintain the hollow form of the extrudate during

FIGURE Side
13.10viewSidecross section
view cross ofofan
section extrusion
extrusion die fordie for hollow
shaping shapingcrosshollow
sectionscross
such assections
tubes and pipes;
Section A-A is a front view cross section showing how the mandrel is held in place; Section B-B shows the tubular
cross section just priorhttps://youtu.be/wE_KTLlrdMA
to exiting the die; die swell causes anhttps://youtu.be/zcBv_JvFDBI
enlargement of the diameter. (Some die construction
details are simplified.)
Chapter 13/Shaping Processes for Plastics
• Wire and cable coating

3.11 Side
s section of die
g of electrical
xtrusion. (Some
uction details
fied.)

Side view cross section of die coating of electrical wire by extrusion

hardening. Pipes and tubes are cooled using open water troughs or by pulling the soft
https://youtu.be/uwFvGZcjQME https://youtu.be/sskaOwHJnvU
extrudate through a water-filled tank with sizing sleeves that limit the OD of the tube
while air pressure is maintained on the inside.
 • Slit die extrusion of sheet and film
ping Processes for Plastics

ns

One of several die configurations for extruding sheet and film

Blown-Film Extrusion Process This is the other widely used process for making thin
https://youtu.be/o_VPbYtdCnk
polyethylene film for packaging. It is a complex process, combining extrusion and
blowing to produce a tube of thin film; it is best explained with reference to the diagram
in Figure 13.16. The process begins with the extrusion of a tube that is immediately drawn
 film method produces
film method stronger
produces film (so
stronger filmthat
(so athat
thinner film can
a thinner filmbe
canused to package
be used a
to packag
product), but thickness
product), control
but thickness and production
control and productionrates rates
are lower. The final
are lower. The blown film can
final blown film c

13.15Use
FIGURE
URE 13.15of of
Use (a)
(a)water
Use of (a) water
water quenching bath
quenching
quenching bath or
bath
or (b)
(b) or chill
(b)
chill chillrolls
rolls rolls
to to achieve
to achieve
achieve fast
fast solidification
solidification
fast solidification of theof the molten
molten film fi
er after extrusion.
extrusion.
• Blown-film extrusion process Section 13.3/Production of Sheet and Film 283

Blown-film process for high

production of thin tubular film
FIGURE 13.16 Blown-
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film process for high
production of thin
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tubular film.
 • Calendering

uration in

A typical roll configuration in calendering

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 The clamping unit is concerned with the operation of the mold. Its functions are to
(1) hold the two halves of the mold in proper alignment with each other; (2) keep the
mold closed during injection by applying a clamping force sufficient to resist the injection

Injection Molding
force; and (3) open and close the mold at the appropriate times in the molding cycle. The
clamping unit consists of two platens, a fixed platen and a moveable platen, and a mechanism
for translating the latter. The mechanism is basically a power press that is operated by
hydraulic piston or mechanical toggle devices of various types. Clamping forces of several
thousand tons are available on large machines.
The cycle for injection molding of a thermoplastic polymer proceeds in the
• Injection molding is a process in which a polymer is heated
following sequence, illustrated in Figure 13.22. Let us pick up the action with the
mold open and the machine ready to start a new molding: (1) The mold is closed and
to a highly plastic state and forced to flow under high
clamped. (2) A shot of melt, which has been brought to the right temperature and
viscosity by heating and the mechanical working of the screw, is injected under high pressure
pressure into a mold cavity, where it solidifies. The molded
into the mold cavity. The plastic cools and begins to solidify when it encounters the cold
surface of the mold. Ram pressure is maintained to pack additional melt into the cavity to
part, called a molding, is then removed from the cavity.

Diagram
FIGURE 13.21
of an injection machine, reciprocating screw type
Diagram of an injection molding machine, reciprocating screw type (some mechanical details are
simplified).
288 Chapter 13/Shaping Processes for Plastics

Typical
FIGURE 13.22 molding
Typical molding cycle
cycle: (1)(1) mold
mold is closed,
is closed, (2) melt
(2) melt is injected intoiscavity,
injected into
(3) screw cavity, and (4) mold
is retracted,
(3) screw is retracted, and (4) mold opens, and part is ejected
opens, and part is ejected.

compensate for contraction during cooling. (3) The screw is rotated and retracted with the
nonreturn valve open to permit fresh polymer to flow into the forward portion of the
ADVANTAGES:
• High production rates
• Low labor cost per unit
• Can be highly automated
• Little or no finishing required
• Wide ranges of colors and surface finishes
• Wide choice of decoration styles and types
• Intricate contour easily produced
• Mass production of accurate parts
• Runner systems can be reused
• Multiple materials can be co-molded to produce finished
assemblies
• Close tolerances obtainable
• Metallic inserts can be incorporated
• Complete assemblies can be made in
one step
INJECTION MOLD - LARGE PRODUCTS

Septic Tank
Crates
INJECTION MOLD - SMALL PRODUCTS
Hot runner mold
MULTI-MATERIAL PRODUCTS
INSERT MOLDING
OUTSERT MOLDING
Gas Assist Injection Molding

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According to the amount of plastic melt injected into the mold
cavity, the process can be divided into two categories:
• Short-shot: The amount of resin injected is smaller than the
volume of the mold cavity, and with the assistant fluid the
resin is expanded and shaped, which is suitable for making
large-sized hollow parts.

• Full-shot: The amount of resin injected is the same as the

volume of the mold cavity. The assistant fluid is for the
packing during cooling in order to compensate for the
shrinkage of melt which is suitable for thin-plate parts.
ADVANTAGES:
382 13 Gas-/Water-Assisted Injection Molding
• Reduced injection pressure of machine
The maximum 1. Reducedinjection pressure
Injection Pressure of Machine required for the machine
in a fluid-assisted injection molding process is only 30-50%
The maximum injection pressure required for the machine in a fluid-assisted injec-
tion molding process is only 30–50% of that required in a conventional injection
of that required in ain conventional
molding, as shown Figure 13.6. injection molding.

^
Pressure

Injection Molding 100-120 MPa

FAIM : 5~20 MPa

Figure 13.6 The difference in pressure between conventional and fluid-assisted injection
molding processes
• Improvement of unbalanced packing issues
An unbalanced packing varies according to the distance
from the gate: the closer to the gate, the better the packing
13.1 Basics 383
effectiveness, and vice versa.
♦ Injection Molding

Over Packing

♦ FAIM

Same pressure

Figure 13.7 The packing phase difference between conventional and fluid-assisted injection
molding processes
the weight of part drastically, reaching over 50% of weight reduction for a stick
shaped part with thick cross-section, while for a part with thick ribs on a thin wal
the weight
• can be reduced up to 35%, as shown in Figure 13.8.
Lightweight and costs down

Empty

Rib and fluid channel

Fluid

Figure 13.8 Core-out behaviors in the fluid-assisted injection molding process

 384 13 Gas-/Water-Assisted Injection Molding

• Reduced manufacturing time

4. Reduced Manufacturing Time
The cooling time almost dominates the whole cycle time of
The cooling time in the production process almost dominates the whole cycle time
the part. As the fluid-assisted
of the part. Generallyinjection molding
speaking, the cooling time is(FAIM)
in proportion to the square of
the thickness of melt. As the fluid-assisted injection molding (FAIM) greatly cores
greatly cores out the melt
out the from
melt from theof the
the inside inside
part andof thethepart
reduces and
thickness of melt, the cool-
reduces the thickness
ing timeof melt,
is then thedrastically,
shortened cooling timein is
as shown then
Figure 13.9.

shortened drastically. ♦ Injection Molding

♦ FAIM

Empty

Figure 13.9 The thickness difference between conventional and fluid-assisted injection mold-
ing processes
 5. Reduced Sink Marks
Using fluids to assist the filling can maintain a better packing inside the mold cav-
ity, and with a smaller melt ratio (reduced shrinkage), the generation of sink marks
can be relieved effectively, as shown in Figure 13.10.
• Reduced sink marks
Rib/ Boss Fluid

13.1 Basics 385

Sink Mark
6. Reduced Shrinkage Caused by Thickness
The volume of a plastic part shrinks as it cools down. The thicker the region is, the
Injection Molding
higher the shrinkage FAIM can result in
becomes. Using fluid-assisted injection molding
effective packing with coring out of the internal melt, with reduced shrinkage at
• Reduced
Figure 13.10
shrinkage
theThe
caused by thickness
sinkregions,
thicker
molding processes
mark difference
as shown in between conventional and fluid-assisted injection
Figure 13.11.

Plastic in Fluid

Fluid will enter the thick

region to compensate the
shrinkage

Figure 13.11 The application of fluid-assisted injection molding process in the thicker regions

7. Reduced Cooling Time

Co-injection molding, also known as sandwich injection molding, was developed in
„ 12.1 Basics
the 1980 s, and is a molding technology using two identical or different but com-
patible polymer melts to form a part of a core wrapped by a skin. Such a process
Co-Injection Molding
12.1.1 Process Principle
technique can be divided into two types, one-channel and two-channel, according
to the design1. Co-Injection Molding
of the nozzle, as shown in Figure 12.2.
Co-injection molding, also known as sandwich injection molding, was developed in
• It is also known
the 1980 s, and isas sandwich
a molding injection
technology molding.
using two identical It but
or different is com-
a
molding technology
patible polymer melts tousing two
form a part of aidentical
core wrappedor
by adifferent but
skin. Such a process
technique can be divided into two types, one-channel and two-channel, according
compatible polymer
to the design melts
of the nozzle, toin form
as shown a part of a core wrapped
Figure 12.2.
by a skin.

A simultaneous injection which A control valve that let the melts

uses a singleAbarrel
simultaneous injection which
enter the cavity in a sequential order
A control valve that let the melts
(a)a single barrel
uses (b)
enter the cavity in a sequential order
(a) (b)
Figure 12.2 Figure
(a) One-channel and (b) two-channel technique for co-injection molding
12.2 (a) One-channel and (b) two-channel technique for co-injection molding

We can takeWe can take a one-channel

a one-channel processprocess as an
as an example, whose
example, whose process flow isflow
process shown
isinshown in
 12.1 Basics

Step(1)
Step(1) Step(2) Step(2) Step(3) Step(3)
Figure 12.3 Process sequence of co-injection molding
Figure 12.3 Process sequence of co-injection molding
Fragile materials can be wrapped inside so! and elastic plastics in order to achieve
Fragileagainst
buffering materials
impactcan be wrapped
and protect inside
the structures so! Therefore,
within. and elastic plastics
the compat-
ibility between materials is critical for co-injection molding. A material compatibil-
buffering against impact and protect the structures within. Ther
ADVANTAGES:
• Materials with low viscosity can be used for the core in
order to reduce the injection pressure.
• Concerning eco-friendliness, recycled secondary
materials can be used for the core.
• Core materials of lower quality can be used to reduce the
cost.
• Expensive materials with particular surface properties,
such as high electrical conductivity or electromagnetic
insulation can be used for the skin or core layer in order
to enhance the part performance.
 Bi-Injection Molding
It isFigure
gure •12.4
12.4 two
to inject
Compatibility
Compatibility
tabledifferent
table for general
for general material A/B
polymers [1]
polymers [1] mold cavity
into the
simultaneously via two independent injection systems, and
the finished part would posses weld lines obviously.

material A
material A

material B
material B

Figure 12.5 Process sequences of bi-injection molding

gure 12.5 Process sequences of bi-injection molding
Figure 12.4 Compatibility table for general polymers [1]

material A

material B

Figure 12.5 Process sequences of bi-injection molding

 counterparts. There is no sprue and runner system in a compression mold, and the process
itself is generally limited to simpler part geometries because of the lower flow capabilities
of the starting thermosetting materials. However, provision must be made for heating the

Compression Molding
mold, usually accomplished by electric resistance heating, steam, or hot oil circulation.
Compression molds can be classified as hand molds, used for trial runs; semiautomatic,
in which the press follows a programmed cycle but the operator manually loads and
unloads the press; and automatic, which operate under a fully automatic press cycle
(including automatic loading and unloading).
• Compression molding is an old and widely used molding
process for thermosetting plastics.

Compression molding for thermosetting plastics

FIGURE 13.28 Compression molding forhttps://youtu.be/VscL0Uw7GRI
thermosetting plastics: (1) charge is loaded; (2) and (3) charge is compressed
and cured; and (4) part is ejected and removed (some details omitted).
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 Transfer Molding
• In this process, a thermosetting charge is loaded into a chamber
immediately ahead of the mold cavity, where it is heated; pressure is
then applied to force the softened polymer to flow into the heated
mold where curing occurs.

Plunger transfer molding

FIGURE 13.29 (a) Pot transfer molding, https://youtu.be/xp1o2umt7bE
and (b) plunger transfer molding. Cycle in both processes is: (1) charge is loaded
into pot, (2) softened polymer is pressed into mold cavity and cured, and (3) part is ejected.
mold cavity, where it is heated; pressure is then applied to force the softened polymer to
flow into the heated mold where curing occurs. There are two variants of the process
illustrated in Figure 13.29: (a) pot transfer molding, in which the charge is injected from a

Pot transfer molding

Blow Molding
• It is a molding process in which air pressure is used to inflate
soft plastic inside a mold cavity.
• Blow molding is accomplished in two steps: (1) fabrication of a
starting tube of molten plastic, called a parison; and (2)
inflation of the tube to the desired final shape.

• Forming the parison is accomplished by either extrusion or

injection molding.
 Section 13.8/Blow Molding and Rotational Molding 299

Extrusion
FIGURE 13.30 blow molding:
Extrusion (1) extrusion
blow molding: (1) extrusion of parison;
of parison; (2) parison
(2) parison is at
is pinched pinched
the top andatsealed
the topat the
and sealed
bottom around aat theblow
metal bottom;
pin as the(3)
twothe tube
halves ismold
of the inflated taking (3)
come together; shape ofisthe
the tube cavity;
inflated so that(4)
it takes the
shape of the mold cavity; and (4) mold is opened to remove the solidified part.
mold is opened to remove the part
https://youtu.be/YWzaZYHXS9s https://youtu.be/dN1RozHsuDM
it exits the die is determined by the mean die diameter Dd. Die swell causes expansion to a
mean parison diameter Dp. At thehttps://youtu.be/8Ql4H40TX_c
https://youtu.be/qn16JtE_vLc same time, wall thickness swells from td to tp. The swell
ratio of the parison diameter and wall thickness is given by
Dp tp
rs ¼ ¼ ð13:20Þ
Dd td
Chapter 13/Shaping Processes for Plastics

Injection
FIGURE 13.32blow molding:
Injection (1) parison
blow molding: is injected
(1) parison molded
is injected moldedaround
aroundaablowing rod;(2)(2)
blowing rod; injection
mold is opened
parison and parison to
is transferred is transferred to a blow
a blow mold; mold;polymer
(3) soft (3) soft polymer is inflated
is inflated; (4)to conform
blow mold to the
is blow
mold; and (4) blow mold is opened, and blown product is removed.
opened and the product is removed

Substituting Eq. (13.20) into this equation, we get

r2s td Dd
tm ¼ ð13:22Þ
Dm
The amount of die swell in the initial extrusion process can be measured by direct
observation; and the dimensions of the die are known. Thus, we can determine the wall
 Digital ABS Blow Mold, Digital ABS Injection Mold
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 Section 13.8/Blow Molding and Rotational Molding 301

Stretch
FIGURE blow Stretch
13.33 molding:
blow(1) injection
molding: molding
(1) injection of parison;
molding (2)(2)
of parison, stretching, and(3)(3)blowing.
stretching, and blowing

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economical to use these more expensive materials because the container walls can be made
thinner. Other blow moldings are made of polypropylene (PP), polyvinylchloride (PVC),
https://youtu.be/QHQPpvezXLA
and polyethylene terephthalate.
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Disposable containers for packaging liquid consumer goods constitute the major
share of products made by blow molding; but they are not the only products. Other items
include large shipping drums (55-gal) for liquids and powders, large storage tanks (2000-
gal), automotive gasoline tanks, toys, and hulls for sail boards and small boats. In the
latter case, two boat hulls are made in a single blow molding and subsequently cut into
Rotational Molding
E1C13 11/02/2009 15:30:32 Page 302

• Rotational molding uses gravity inside a rotating mold to

achieve a hollow
302 form, forProcesses
Chapter 13/Shaping making for Plastics large and hollow shapes.

Rotational molding cycle performed

on a three-station indexing machine (1)
unload-load station; (2) heat and rotate
mold; (3) cool the mold

FIGURE 13.34
Rotational molding cycle
performed on a
three-station indexing
machine: (1) unload–load
station; (2) heat and rotate
mold; (3) cool the mold.

https://youtu.be/q2xE-VfAjmE
(700! F), depending on the polymer and the item being molded. The third station cools the
mold, using forced cold air or water spray, to cool and solidify the plastic molding inside.
A fascinating variety of articles are made by rotational molding. The list includes
 ge 303
ge 303
Thermoforming
• Thermoforming is a process in which a303flat thermoplastic
Section 13.9/Thermoforming

sheet is heated and deformed into the desired

Section 13.9/Thermoforming 303
shape.

Vacuum thermoforming
Vacuum https://youtu.be/alq3RDZN4jo
1) a flat
Vacuum
oftened
1) a flat
e soft-
oftened
ced over a
e soft-
vity;
ced (3) a
over
he sheet
vity; (3) a
ndsheet
he (4) the
n contact
nd (4) the
ldcontact
n
part
ld is
part is
mmed
mmed
 thermoforming. Unless the contour of the mold is very shallow, there will be significant
304 Chapter 13/Shaping
thinning of theProcesses
sheet asforit
Plastics
is stretched to conform to the mold contour. Positive and
negative molds produce a different pattern of thinning in a given part. Consider the tub-
shaped part in our figures. In the positive mold, as the sheet is draped over the convex
Pressureform,
thermoforming
the portion making contact with the top surface (corresponding to the base of the
tub) solidifies quickly and experiences virtually no stretching. This results in a thick base
but significant thinning in the walls of the tub. By contrast, a negative mold results in a
more even distribution of stretching and thinning in the sheet before contact is made with
the cold surface.
A way to improve the thinning distribution with a positive mold is to prestretch the
sheet before draping it over the convex form. As shown in Figure 13.38, the heated plastic
sheet is stretched uniformly by vacuum pressure into a spherical shape before drawing it
over the mold.
The first step depicted in frame (1) of Figure 13.38 can be used alone as a method to
produce globe-shaped parts such as skylight windows and transparent domes. In the
process, closely controlled air pressure is applied to inflate the soft sheet. The pressure is
maintained until the blown shape has solidified.
Use of a positive mold in vacuum thermoforming
FIGURE 13.36 Pressure thermoforming. The sequence is similar to the previous figure, the difference being:
(2) sheet is placed over a mold cavity; and (3) positive pressure forces the sheet into the cavity.
37 Use of a
old in vacuum
Another difference is in the thinning of the plastic sheet, one of the problems in
ming: (1) the
thermoforming. Unless the contour of the mold is very shallow, there will be significant
stic sheet is thinning of the sheet as it is stretched to conform to the mold contour. Positive and
above the negative molds produce a different pattern of thinning in a given part. Consider the tub-
ld and (2) the shaped part in our figures. In the positive mold, as the sheet is draped over the convex
wered into po- form, the portion making contact with the top surface (corresponding to the base of the
ing the sheet tub) solidifies quickly and experiences virtually no stretching. This results in a thick base
old as a vacuum but significant thinning in the walls of the tub. By contrast, a negative mold results in a
sheet against more even distribution of stretching and thinning in the sheet before contact is made with
urface. the cold surface.
A way to improve the thinning distribution with a positive mold is to prestretch the
sheet before draping it over the convex form. As shown in Figure 13.38, the heated plastic
 Prestretching the sheet
in (1) prior to draping and
vacuuming it over a Section 13.9/Thermoforming 305
positive mold in (2).

Mechanical Thermoforming The third method, called mechanical thermoforming,

uses matching positive and negative molds that are brought together against the heated
plastic sheet, forcing it to assume their shape. In pure mechanical forming, air pressure is
not used at all. The process is illustrated in Figure 13.39. Its advantages are better
dimensional control and the opportunity for surface detailing on both sides of the part.
The disadvantage is that two mold halves are required; therefore, the molds for the other
two methods are less costly.

Applications Thermoforming is a secondary shaping process, the primary process being

that which produces the sheet or film (Section 13.3). Only thermoplastics can be thermo-
FIGURE 13.38 formed, because extruded sheets of thermosetting or elastomeric polymers have already
Prestretching the sheet been cross-linked and cannot be softened by reheating. Common thermoforming plastics
in (1) prior to draping and are polystyrene, cellulose acetate and cellulose acetate butyrate, ABS, PVC, acrylic
vacuuming it over a
positive mold in (2). (polymethylmethacrylate), polyethylene, and polypropylene.

Prestretching the sheet in thermoforming with positive mold

Mechanical Thermoforming The third method, called mechanical thermoforming,
uses matching positive and negative molds that are brought together against the heated
plastic sheet, forcing it to assume their shape. In pure mechanical forming, air pressure is
not used at all. The process is illustrated in Figure 13.39. Its advantages are better
dimensional control and the opportunity for surface detailing on both sides of the part.
The disadvantage is that two mold halves are required; therefore, the molds for the other
two methods are less costly.

Mechanical thermoforming
Applications Thermoforming is a secondary shaping process, the primary process being
that which produces the sheet or film (Section 13.3). Only thermoplastics can be thermo-
formed, because extruded sheets of thermosetting or elastomeric polymers have already
FIGURE 13.39
https://youtu.be/Oh-MXjMFxT4 been cross-linked and cannot be softened by reheating. Common thermoforming plastics
Mechanicalare polystyrene, cellulose acetate and cellulose acetate butyrate, ABS, PVC, acrylic
thermoforming: (1) heated
(polymethylmethacrylate), polyethylene, and polypropylene.
sheet placed above a
negative mold, and
(2) mold is closed to shape
the sheet.
 Process Selection
PRODUCT SIZE
Process Very small Small Medium Large Very large
Injection molding
Compression
molding
Transfer molding
Extrusion
Rotational molding
Vacuum forming
Blow molding
APPEARANCE
Process Medium Good Excellent
Injection molding
Compression molding
Transfer molding
Extrusion
Rotational molding
Vacuum forming
Blow molding
 DIMENSIONAL ACCURACY
Process Poor Medium Good Excellent
Injection molding
Compression molding
Transfer molding
Extrusion
Rotational molding
Vacuum forming
Blow molding
COST
Process Product/Molding cost
Injection molding 1

Blow molding 2

Rotational molding 3

Extrusion 4

Compression molding 5

Casting 6

Transfer molding 7

Vacuum forming 8

Machining 9
Key: 1 = Lowest manufactured part cost
Injection Molding Process
Injection Molding Cycle
MELT

SQUEEZE

FREEZE

DROP
 Frozen molding
in clamped mold
Spru
//////////////////k~x~

Sh;ekvmlOvesY t; k, r . . . . . . ~ Stage4 ~
~
41Fdopen
Stage 1 Rese r//voi r ~ - / ~
full Ejected molding

_
 full Ejected molding

"////////~'///////// Mold clamped,

~ ~ cavities filling
with melt
Stage2 Screwmoves forward,
check valve closed K

F
//////.'//,.'~////.',"/e" Mold clamped,
~ ~ cavities full,
melt freezing
Stage3 Scre w(almost) r
stationary r
p
Fig. 2 Stagesin the operationof a reciprocating-screwin-
jectionmoldingmachine
INJECTION UNIT ADVANCES
• Nozzle must seal on contact with the mold to avoid leakage.
• Radius of nozzle is important; it should be slightly smaller
on nozzle to give a good seal.
INJECTION FILLING
• Injection pressure and injection speed work together
to inject plastic into the mold.
• Begin at the shot weight position and end at switch-
over position.
• A process should fill the mold to 95 to 99% (full but
show sink mark).
INJECTION PACKING
• To compensate for dimensional and surface changes
when plastic is cooling in the mold.
• Begin at switch-over and end when the holding time
expires.
• This is done by compressing the “cushion” to replace
the volume lost by shrinkage.
Forward Back

Switch-over position
Feeding position

Remaining cushion

Compression relief
Holding pressure
volume

Injection

Cushion
Maximum shot volume of machine
GATE SOLIDIFICATION
• Gate open longer => more possibility to pack the mold
• Unsealed gate allows polymer to flow back into the
runner, so it is very important to identify gate
“freeze” time.
• Holding time should be long enough to ensure the
solidification of plastic in the gate.

Gate
Runner
 GATE FREEZE-OFF Holding time (s) Weight (g)
19 2 16.4
4 17.1
18 6 17.5
Weight (g)

8 18
17 10 18.1
12 18.1
16
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 14 18.0
16 18
Holding time (s)

Gate
Runner
INJECTION PLASTICIZING
• It begins at the end of the holding phase and ends
when the screw is forced back to the desired “shot
weight”.
• This decides how much plastic is used to completely
fill the mold and it is done by rotating the machine’s
screw inside the hot barrel.
• Plasticising draws in fresh granules and melts them,
to reduce the cycle time this happens during cooling
time.
INJECTION MOLD OPEN
• It allows removal of the finished product from the
mold and it should be slow opening to
✓ reduce the chance of product sticking in the
fixed half due to vacuum
✓ exerts less force on the angled dowels of split
mold
✓ prevent distortion of products if they are
snatched out of the fixed half
✓ improve the accuracy for robot removal
Injection Molding Machine
• The injection molding machine has two basic parts,
the injection unit and the clamping unit.
• The injection unit melts the plastic and conveys or
moves the material to the confined chamber or mold.
• The clamping unit holds the mold in a closed position
during injection and opens after cooling to eject the
part from the mold.
Horizontal Clamping Unit
Vertical Clamping Unit

• Use widely for insert molding

• Can use rotary or shuttle tables
HYDRAULIC CLAMPING UNIT
• Easier to set
• Lower risk of contamination
• The clamping force can be controlled more accurately
• Often slower than toggles
• Opening stroke reduced by mold height
TOGGLE CLAMPING UNIT
• Use less energy
• Faster movements possible
• Maximum opening stroke always available even at
maximum mold height
• More maintenance needed
• Potential contamination due to lubricating oils or grease
• More expensive
 H3
S1 H1

TOGGLE SYSTEM
Mold opening stroke remains
the same, maximum platen
distance H3=changes.
S2 H2
H3

S2 H2

HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
Mold opening stroke changes
with mold height, maximum
platen distance H3 remains
the same. S1 H1

H3
INJECTION UNIT: HOPPER
• The hopper is the section of the injection molding
machine that stores material just before it enters the
barrel of an injection molding machine.
• Material mass flow and bulk density, provide
information on how to choose the correct-size hopper
and what requirements are needed to store material I

prior its being sent to the hopper. V

BULK DENSITY
• Bulk density is defined as the weight per unit volume
of a bulk material, including the air voids.
• Material density is defined as the weight of the unit
volume of the plastic, excluding air voids.
• If the BD is greater than 50%
of the actual density of the
material, the bulk material will
be reasonably easy to convey
through the injection molding
screw.
INJECTION UNIT: MELT CONVEYING PHASE
• In injection molding, an open-ended cylinder, referred
to as a barrel, acts as a guide for the pellets and
moves the pellets and melt from the hopper to the
mold where the part is made.
• A screw conveys material down through the barrel
from the barrel to the mold.
• The channel of the screw do not have a constant depth.
INJECTION UNIT: SCREW
• The screw is what forces the pellet, then the melt
material, forward out of the nozzle into the mold.
• Traditionally, the screw is divided into three parts: (1)
the feed section, (2) the transition section, and (3) the
metering section.
Screw Components:
 Heater
Barrel
SCREW: FEED SECTION
• The pellets here are still in solid form, but there has
been some initial softening.
• The channels of the screw are deep in this area to
allow the pellets to convey down the barrel.
• Temperature settings of the barrel are the lowest in
this section, to avoid premature melting of the
pellets, which can cause degradation or interfere with
material feed into the barrel.
SCREW: TRANSITION SECTION
• The pellet material begins to melt and mix with
unmelted pellets. In this section, the channel depth of
the screw becomes shallow, and the degree of
shallowness increasing down the transition section.
• The increasing shallowness causes the melt-pellet
mix to compress against the inside of the barrel wall.
• Frictional heat builds up, and in combination with the
heat generated by the barrel heater, creates more
melt to be formed within the screw flight channels.
SCREW: METERING SECTION
• The metering section acts as the pumping mechanism
for the melt, forcing molten material forward
accurately and completing the melting process.
• As the material goes forward to the front of the screw,
force is generated to push the screw back in the direction
of the hopper to the original, set position of the shot size.
SCREW: L/D RATIO
• The L/D (length/diameter) ratio is an important
concept for determining the sizing of an injection unit.
• In the injection molding process, screws with L/D
ratios of 18:1 and 20:1 are typically used.
SCREW: COMPRESSION RATIO
• Compression ratio is a term used to give an idea of
how much the screw compresses and squeezes the
melt-molten material mix in the screw.
• The equation to determine the compression ratio is

Where Df is depth of channel in the feed section and Dm is the depth

of the channels in the metering section.
INJECTION UNIT: BARREL
• The barrel is defined as an open-ended cylinder that
controls the linear direction of the melt-conveying
process, from the hopper to the mold.
• It provides a frictional
surface for the plastic
material, to assist in the
melting of the plastic from
pellet form to molten form.
INJECTION UNIT: HEATER BAND
• Several types of heater bands are used for heating a
barrel. These include tubular heaters, cartridge
heaters, band heaters, and natural gas heaters.
• A thermocouple is used
to measure and control
the amount of heat being
applied to the barrel by
the heaters.
INJECTION UNIT: CHECK RING
• When the screw comes forward to inject the material
forward into the mold, molten material can flow back
over the screw flights. To prevent the backflow, a
check ring is used.
• Two different types of check rings are discussed; the
sliding ring check valve and the ball check valve.
INJECTION UNIT: SLIDING RING VALVE
INJECTION UNIT: NOZZLE
• The nozzle, the last section of the melt-conveying
phase, guides the melt of the material into the sprue
bushing and into the mold.
• The purpose of the nozzle is to maintain the
temperature of the molten material after it has been
plasticated by the screw and barrel and before it
enters the mold to be formed into the final part.
• The nozzle typically is kept short to avoid overheating
the material by increasing the residence time in
plastication.
• It is important that the orifice or opening of the
nozzle tip match the opening of the sprue bushing.
• A rule of thumb is to have the orifice diameter be
smaller in diameter by 20% than the diameter of the
sprue bushing.
• There are several types of nozzle designs that are
commonly used in injection molding: standard nozzle,
reverse taper nozzle and spring-operated valve
type.
STANDARD NOZZLE
• A standard nozzle uses an open channel with no
mechanical or spring-loaded valve to convey material
through the nozzle.
REVERSE TAPER NOZZLE
• A reverse taper nozzle utilizes a tapered section
inside the nozzle at the tip of the nozzle in order to
prevent materials such as nylon from drooling.
SPRING-OPERATED VALVE NOZZLE
• A spring-operated valve-type nozzle uses an internal check
valve held closed by an internal or external spring. Injection
pressure opens the valve, when injection pressure is decreased,
the spring closes off flow through the nozzle.
Defects
Weld Lines
• Weld lines are formed when two melt fronts converge and
join forming a thin fine line in the part. The two converging
melt fronts cool rapidly and bond poorly when they join.
• These fine lines cause a major weakness in the part than can
caused part failure in its end use.
SOLUTIONS:
• Increase mold temperature
• Increase injection speed
• Increase melt temperature
• Increase holding pressure
• Check venting
• Relocate gate to change flow
pattern
Jetting
• Jetting occurs when molten plastic material flows through
the gate and form a wormlike formation without laying down
a skinned surface.
Problems caused by jetting:
✦
Unacceptable surface finish
✦
Weak parts
✦
Stresses formed as jet cools
before surrounding material
✦
Jet does not fuse with surrounding material
SOLUTIONS:
• Using tab gate or fan gate to eliminate jetting.
Side gate Fan gate
• Reduce or profile injection speed
• Increase melt temperature (at
lower melt temperature, more
pressure is needed to force the
material to flow)
• Increasing the gate diameter
will reduce the runner injection
pressure.
• Increase mold temperature (low mold temperature
causing the melt to cool too quickly as it hits the
cavity, forming poor bonding between this colder
material and the hotter material flowing behind)
Void and Sink Mark
• Sink marks appear as a depression or dip on the part
surface. It is the result of plastic shrinkage as it cools in the
mold.
SOLUTIONS:
• Increase holding pressure and holding time
• Decrease mold temperature
• Decrease melt temperature
Burn Streak
• Melt temperature too high
• Excessive residence
time in the plasticising
cylinder
• Shearing too high
Color Streak
• Poor blending in the plasticising unit
• Back pressure is too low
• Pigments granules are too big
Splash Marks: Moisture
• Hygroscopic (moisture-absorbing) plastics must be
dried before use. If they are molded un-dried, the
moisture will boil in the barrel and emerge as silver
streaks or splash marks on the part’s surface.
Other Causes:
‣ Polymer degraded
‣ Filler damp
‣ Filler separating during fast
injection
‣ Polymer shearing through gate
 Moisture in the granules Moisture on the mold surface

Causes: Causes:
‣ insufficient pre-drying ‣ leakage
‣ wrong storage ‣ condensation water
Diesel Effect
• Trapped air is compressed by the advancing melt
until it reaches critical pressure and burns
explosively.
• Injection speed too fast
• Poor venting
SOLUTIONS:
• Check vents are clear of dirt/debris.
• Ensure correct clamping force is being used (vents
can be “closed” by excessive clamping force).
• Reduce injection speed (this allows more time for the
air to escape).
• Ensure vents are deep enough. Polymer Depth of vent (mm)
PS 0.02-0.05
ABS 0.04-0.06
PC/ABS 0.02-0.05
PC 0.02-0.05
PE 0.01-0.02
Dark Spot
• Debris falling into open bags or material bags dirty,
contaminants sticking to bags by static and falling
into hopper during loading.
• Contamination already in granules, caused by
polymer manufacturer.
• Contamination the result of using regrind
• Possible causes of screw and barrel clearance
dimensions:
HOT stays flexible
Clearance 0.02 mm

Cold layer cracks

Flash
• Flashing is defined as excess material that has
exceeded the boundary of a mold beyond the mold
cavity.
• Clamping force too low
• Change over too late
• Holding pressure too high
Short Shot
• A Short shot is a moulded part that is under filled or
not filled completely.
• Plasticising volume too small
• Injection pressure too low
• Injection speed too low
Delamination/ Flaking
• Delamination is a condition that exists when the
surface skin of a moulded part can be physically
separated from the part.
• Injection speed too high
• Melt temperature too high
• Mold temperature too high
• Incompatible materials
Visible Ejector Mark
• Localized deformation can occur on the part as a
result of the forces placed on the part by the ejector
pins.
• Holding pressure too high
• Cooling time too short
Record Groove Effect
• The plastic is at the end of its ability to flow, the
cooling melt momentarily stopping then pulsingpushing
forward as the melt breaks through the chilled skin.
RECORD GROOVE EFFECT