3

CHAPTER
Landforms and Life

Free from the burden of human beings, may the Earth

with many heights, slopes and great plains, bearing plants
endowed with varied powers, spread out for us and show
us her riches! … The Earth is my mother and I am her
child.
— Atharva Veda, Bhūmi Sūkta (‘Hymn to the Earth’)

3 – Landforms and Life

The Big 1. What are the major types of

landforms and their significance
Questions to life and culture?
2. What are the challenges and
opportunities of life associated
with each landform? 41

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 Introduction
Humans, like most mammals, live on land. Land, as you may
have noticed, has many forms and features; its appearance
changes a lot from one region to another. Suppose that you
are travelling by road from the region known as Chhota
Nagpur in Jharkhand, reach Prayagraj in Uttar Pradesh,
and go on to Almora in Uttarakhand. On the way, you will
see very different landscapes. In fact, you will encounter
three major landforms, which we will now explore.

LET’S EXPLORE
Æ As a class activity, form groups of four or five students
and observe the school’s surroundings. What kind of
landscape do you see? Will the landscape change a few
kilometres away? Or within some 50 kilometres? Compare
with other groups.
Altitude: Æ In the same groups, discuss a journey that any of you
The height
of an object has made through a region of India. List the different
above landscapes seen on the way. Compare with other groups.
sea level.
Examples:
the altitude A landform is a physical feature on the surface of our
of a
mountain,
planet Earth. Landforms take shape over millions of years
the altitude and have a significant connection with the environment
of a bird and life. They can broadly be divided into three categories
or plane in
flight, the — mountains, plateaus and plains (Fig. 3.1).
altitude of a
satellite. These landforms have different climates and are home to
India and the World: Land and the People

a variety of flora and fauna. Humans have adapted to all

landforms, but the number of people living on different
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kinds of landforms varies throughout the world.

Mountains
Mountains are landforms that are much higher than the
surrounding landscape. They can be recognised by a broad
base, steep slopes and a narrow summit. Depending on
their height, some mountains are covered with snow. At
lower altitudes, the snow melts every summer and turns
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 Fig. 3.1. This drawing illustrates three landforms — mountains in the
background (two of them snow-capped), a plateau on the left and a plain in
the foreground, with a river emerging from the mountains.
Precipitation:
into water that feeds rivers. At high altitudes, the snow Water
may never melt, leaving the mountain permanently snow- from the
atmosphere
capped. reaching the
ground in any
Other highlands with a lower height, less steep slopes and form — rain,
rounded tops are called hills. snow and
hail are the
most common
THINK ABOUT IT forms of
precipitation.
What is snow? Unless you live in a Himalayan region (such
as Kashmir, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
3 – Landforms and Life

Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh), you may never have seen

snow! In the rest of India, most precipitation is in the form
of rain and hail. But at higher altitudes, if it is cold enough,
snow will fall, covering the landscape in a soft and beautiful
white blanket. Snow and hailstones are nothing but
precipitation of water in a solid state.
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 Mount Everest Mount Aconcagua

Mount Kilimanjaro Mont Blanc

Mount Kanchenjunga Mount Anamudi

India and the World: Land and the People
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44
Fig. 3.2. Pictures of six mountains of the world

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 Most of the world’s mountains are grouped in mountain
ranges, such as the Himalayas in Asia, the Alps in Europe
and the Andes in South America. Some of these ranges
stretch for thousands of kilometres.

9000 m

8000 m

7000 m

6000 m

5000 m

4000 m

3000 m

2000 m

1000 m

Fig. 3.3. A sketch showing the relative heights of six mountains of the world

Fig. 3.2 shows pictures of six mountains of the world.

Fig. 3.3 brings them together to give a visual impression of
their relative heights from top to bottom. Mount Everest
(between Tibet (China) and Nepal) and Kanchenjunga
(between Nepal and the Indian state of Sikkim) are the two
highest peaks of the Himalayan range. Mount Aconcagua
(in South America) is the highest peak of the Andes. Mount
3 – Landforms and Life

Kilimanjaro in eastern Africa is an isolated mountain that

is not part of any range. Mont Blanc in Western Europe
is the highest mountain of the Alps. Anamudi (in Kerala,
also known as ‘Anai Peak’) is the highest mountain in south
India.
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 Montane forest: Mountains with tall and sharp peaks, like the Himalayas,
A type of forests
that grows in are relatively ‘young’, which means that they were formed
mountainous recently in the Earth’s history — but that is still millions
regions.
of years ago! Shorter and more rounded mountains and
hills, like the Aravalli Range, are much older and have been
Moss: rounded by erosion. Sometimes, as with the Himalayas,
A small green
plant without upliftment as well as erosion continue to this day. (You
flowers or true will learn more in Science about such processes and their
roots, often
spreading in
causes; let us just say here that some mountains of the
a cushion-like world, like the Himalayas, are still growing in height.)
cover.
Mountain environment
Lichen: Mountain slopes are often covered with a type of forest
A plant-like
organism
called montane forest, where conifer trees such as pines,
that firs, spruce and deodar are common. These conifer trees
generally grow tall and cone-shaped, with thin, pointed leaves. At
clings to
rocks, walls higher altitudes, the trees give way to grasses, mosses and
or tree. lichen.

Here are two verses from a long poem by Kālidāsa, who lived at least
1,500 years ago and is often considered to be the greatest poet of
ancient India. The poem, Kumārasambhava, begins with an invocation
to the Himalayas. (This is a simplified translation from the Sanskrit.)
In the north rises Himālaya, the Lord of mountains, like a
living god, who measures the Earth and stretches from the
India and the World: Land and the People

western to the eastern oceans. …

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From it the wind comes down, carrying spray from descending

Gangā, shaking the deodar trees, opening the peacocks’ tail
feathers and cooling the mountain people after they hunt deer.
Discuss the verses and the following questions in class.
ƒ What are the ‘western to the eastern oceans’? Can you locate
them as well as the ‘Lord of mountains’ on Fig. 5.2?
ƒ Why is Gangā mentioned? (Hint: There could be several reasons.)

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 Peregrine falcon Himalayan tahr

Mountain hare Golden eagle Canadian lynx

Yak Ibex Grey fox

Leopard Black bear

Fig. 3.4. A few mountain animals

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 Deep forests, flowing rivers, lakes, grasslands and caves in
the mountains are home to diverse fauna, for instance, the
golden eagle, the peregrine falcon, the Canadian lynx, the
snow leopard, the ibex, the Himalayan tahr, the mountain
hare, the yak, the grey fox and the black bear (Fig. 3.4).

DON’T MISS OUT

‘Ganga’ is the Indian name of the largest river originating in
the Himalayas. In English, ‘Ganges’ is also used. Nearly 2,500 km
long, this river has numerous tributaries (that is, other rivers
joining it). Some of them, like the Yamuna and the Ghagara, also
originate in the Himalayas. Others, like the Son or Sone, originate
from the Vindhya Range to the south of the Ganga plain.
India and the World: Land and the People
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Fig. 3.5. Terrace farming in north India

Terrain:
A piece or
stretch of Life in the mountains
land, from
the point The mountain terrain is usually rugged or rough, and has
of view of steep slopes. This means that regular farming can only be
its physical
features. practised in some valleys. Cultivation is practised on the
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 slopes by cutting steps into the slope (Fig. 3.5). This is called Valley:
A lower area
terrace farming. In many mountainous regions of the world, between hills
herding is the preferred occupation over agriculture. or mountains,
often with
Tourism is often an important source of income for the a river or
stream
people living in the mountains. The crisp mountain air flowing
through it.
and scenic beauty attract many tourists. Some tourists
also go to the mountains for sports such as skiing, hiking,
mountaineering and paragliding. For many centuries,
people have also travelled to these uplands for pilgrimages
to holy sites. But an excessive inflow of visitors can also
put the fragile mountain environment under pressure; it is
often difficult to find the right balance.

DON’T MISS OUT

“ Bachendri Pal started climbing mountains from a young
age and led many women’s climbing expeditions. She
was the first Indian woman to climb Mount Everest in
1984 and was awarded Padma Shri the same year (and
Padma Bhushan in 2019).
“ Arunima Sinha lost a leg in an accident when she
was 22. With Bachendri Pal’s encouragement and
training, she managed to climb Mount Everest in 2013,
and went on to climb the highest peak of every continent,
including Mount Vinson in Antarctica! She was awarded
Padma Shri in 2015.

LET’S EXPLORE
3 – Landforms and Life

These images (Fig. 3.6 on page 50) depict a few challenges

that people living in the mountains may face. Discuss them
in groups in the class and write one paragraph on each. Also
discuss why, despite many such challenges, people still choose
to live in the mountains.
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 Flash flood:
A sudden
local flood,
often
caused by a
cloudburst.
Landslide
Landslide:
The sudden
collapse of a
mass of earth
or rock from a
mountainside.

Avalanche: Flash flood

The sudden fall
of snow, ice or
rocks from a
mountainside;
Uncontrolled tourism
often occurs
when the snow
starts melting.

Cloudburst:
A sudden
violent
rainstorm.

Avalanche Heavy snowfall

India and the World: Land and the People

Cloudburst Cold weather

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50
Fig. 3.6. Life in the mountains has definite positives, from pure air to the
beautiful scenery. It also involves potential challenges, both natural and
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 DON’T MISS OUT
Many traditional communities around the world consider
mountains to be sacred places and worship them. Mount
Everest, the highest mountain in the world at 8,849 m, has
many names. Tibetans call it ‘Chomolungma’, which means
‘Mother Goddess of the World’ and worship the mountain as
such. Nepalis call it ‘Sagarmatha’, meaning ‘Goddess of the Sky’.
Similarly, Mount Kailash in Tibet is held sacred by followers
of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Bon (an ancient Tibetan
religion). Such reverence for mountain summits is also found
elsewhere in India, as well as in other parts of the world.

Plateaus
A plateau is a landform that rises up from the surrounding
land and has a more or less flat surface; some of its sides
are often steep slopes. Like mountains, plateaus can be
young or old in terms of the Earth’s history. Two examples
of plateaus are the Tibetan Plateau, the largest and highest
plateau in the world, and the Deccan Plateau. The height
of plateaus can vary from a few hundred metres to several
thousand metres.

DON’T MISS OUT

“ The Tibetan Plateau has an average altitude of 4,500 m,
which explains why it has been nicknamed the ‘Roof of
the World’! From east to west, it is nearly 2,500 km long
— the distance from Chandigarh to Kanyakumari.
“ The Deccan Plateau of central and south India is one of
the oldest plateaus in the world, formed through volcanic
3 – Landforms and Life

activity millions of years ago.

Like mountains, plateaus are rich in mineral deposits; they

have been called ‘storehouses of minerals’. As a result,
mining is a major activity on plateaus, where many of the
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 African Plateau is famous for gold and diamond mining. In
India, huge reserves of iron, coal and manganese are found
in the Chhota Nagpur Plateau.
The plateau environment is very diverse across the world.
Many plateaus have a rocky soil, which makes them less
fertile than plains (see next section) and therefore less
favourable to farming. An exception is that of lava plateaus
(that is, formed through volcanic activity), as they often
have a rich black soil.
Plateaus are also home to many spectacular waterfalls.
The Victoria Falls on the Zambezi River in southern Africa,
the Hundru Falls on the Subarnarekha River in the Chhota
Nagpur Plateau and the Jog Falls on the Sharavati River in
the Western Ghats are a few such waterfalls. The Nohkalikai
Falls (Fig. 3.7) drop down 340 metres from the Cherrapunji
Plateau (in Meghalaya).
India and the World: Land and the People
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52 Fig. 3.7. The Nohkalikai Falls emerging from the Cherrapunji Plateau

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 Plains Sea level:
The average
level of the
Plains are landforms that have an extensive flat or gently surface of
undulating surface. They do not have any large hills or deep the oceans,
also called
valleys. They are generally not more than 300 metres above ‘mean sea
sea level. level’.

Floodplains are one type of plains formed by rivers

originating in mountain ranges, where they collect
particles of rock, sand and silt called ‘sediments’. These
sediments are carried all the way to the plains, where
the rivers deposit them, making the soil very fertile. As a
result, these plains are ideal for growing crops of all kinds,
and agriculture is a major economic occupation in this
landform. Plains also support a variety of flora and fauna.
Rocky

Ural

Mongolian
Alaska Tibetan
Mississippi
Indus
Himalaya
Atlas
Nile Yangtze
East
African
Amazon
Ganga
& Brahmaputra
Andes

Patagonian

Plateau
River Plain
Mountain Range
Fig. 3.8. This world map shows a few major mountain ranges,
3 – Landforms and Life

plateaus and plains.

LET’S EXPLORE
Use the colour code in Fig. 3.8 to add a landform to each
name. For instance, ‘Tibetan plateau’, ‘Rocky range’, ‘Nile
plain’. (You do not have to remember the names in this map.)
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 Fig. 3.9. A satellite view of the Ganga plain

LET’S EXPLORE
The picture in Fig. 3.9 has been taken from a satellite. It
captures a portion of north India from a high altitude. Observe
and discuss the image as a class activity.
Æ Which colour is the Ganga plain?
Æ What does the white expanse represent?
Æ What does the brown expanse at the bottom left of the
India and the World: Land and the People

image represent?
Exploring Society: India and Beyond

Life in the plains

Thousands of years ago, the first civilisations developed
around rivers in fertile plains. In our times too, a large part
of the world’s population lives in plains.
About 40 crore people, more than one-fourth of the total
Indian population, live in India’s Ganga plain (often called
the ‘Gangetic plain’). As with many other plains of the
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 world, the major occupations of people in this region
include river fishing and agriculture. Food crops such as
rice, wheat, maize, barley and millets are grown. Fibre
crops such as cotton, jute and hemp are also grown in the
Gangetic plain. Traditional agriculture has been mostly
rainfed (that is, watered through rainfall). In recent
decades, however, agriculture has turned to irrigation,
with water brought to the fields through networks of
canals or pumped from groundwater. While irrigation has
increased agricultural production, it has also contributed to
the depletion (or decrease) of groundwater. This presents a
challenge for the future of agriculture in the region. Some
of the other problems affecting the Ganga plains include
high population and pollution.
Whether in mountain ranges or plains, rivers around the
world have carried immense cultural value. In particular,
many communities have considered a river’s source and
its confluence with one or two other rivers to be sacred.
In India, numerous festivals, ceremonies and rituals are
conducted at such locations.
Because plains have a gentle slope, river navigation is easy
and supports a lot of economic activities. In earlier days,
people also used rivers extensively to travel from one place
Confluence:
to another. Even today (Fig. 3.10 on page 56), there are The meeting
stretches along the Ganga where people prefer to use boats point of two
or more
to move around! rivers.

LET’S EXPLORE
3 – Landforms and Life

Æ Can you give examples of river sources or confluences from

your region that are regarded sacred by any community?
Æ Visit a nearby river and observe all activities there, whether
economic or cultural. Note them down and discuss with
your classmates.

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 Æ Name some popular tourist destinations in India and
identify the category of landform they are associated with.

Fig. 3.10. River transportation on the Ganga

Resilience: In this chapter, we explored the three main landforms.

The capacity
to meet But its surface is very complex and experts often define a few
challenges more landforms. One such landform is the desert. Deserts
and
difficulties, are considered to be large and dry expanses with very little
adapt to precipitation. Their flora and fauna are also unique. Some
them or
overcome deserts are hot, like the Sahara Desert in Africa or the Thar
India and the World: Land and the People

them. Desert in the northwest of the Indian Subcontinent. Others

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are cold, like the Gobi Desert in Asia. (Some experts also
describe the Antarctica continent as a desert.)
Despite harsh living conditions, humans have adapted to
most of the deserts. In India, communities living in the Thar
Desert, or migrating through it, hold rich cultural traditions,
such as folk songs and legends, related to the desert.
The diverse ways in which humans have made all landforms
their home is a testimony to our adaptability and resilience.
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 The five tiṇais of ancient Tamil Sangam poetry are five
landscapes associated with certain specific deities, lifestyles,
moods or emotions (such as love, longing, separation, quarrel,
etc.). This table only lists the characteristics of the five
landscapes and the main human occupations in each:

Tiṇai Landscape Main occupation

Kuriñji mountainous regions hunting and gathering

Mullai grassland and forests cattle rearing

Marudam fertile agricultural plains farming

Neydal coastal regions fishing and seafaring

Pālai arid, desert-like regions journeying and fighting

These five tiṇais constitute a different classification of

landforms than the one we have seen, but they reflect a keen
awareness of the diverse regions and their characteristics.
They also illustrate the deep connection between humanity
and the natural environment. (You do not need to remember
the details of the tiṇais, but the concepts they reflect need to be
understood.)

Before we move on ...

Æ Landforms are classified into three main types —
mountains, plateaus and plains. They have very
different physical characteristics and environments.
Æ Throughout history, people’s lives and activities have been
much impacted by the type of landform they have lived in.
3 – Landforms and Life

These landforms are an integral part of culture across the

world. Indian culture, in particular, has celebrated them in
diverse ways.
Æ Each landform offers different challenges as well
as opportunities.
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 Questions, activities and projects
1. In what type of landform is your town / village / city
located? Which features mentioned in this chapter do
you see around you?
2. Let us go back to our initial trip from Chhota Nagpur to
Prayagraj and Almora. Describe the three landforms you
came across on the way.
3. List a few famous pilgrimage spots in India along with the
landforms in which they are found.
4. State whether true or false —
Æ The Himalayas are young mountains with rounded tops.
Æ Plateaus usually rise sharply at least on one side.
Æ Mountains and hills belong to the same type
of landform.
Æ Mountains, plateaus and rivers in India have the same
types of flora and fauna.
Æ Ganga is a tributary to the Yamuna.
Æ Deserts have unique flora and fauna.
Æ Melting snow feeds rivers.
Æ Sediments from rivers deposited in the plains makes
the land fertile.
Æ All deserts are hot.
5. Match words in pairs:
India and the World: Land and the People

Mount Everest Africa

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rafting roof of the world

camels rice fields
plateau desert
Gangetic plains river
waterway Ganga
Mount Kilimanjaro tributary
Yamuna climbing
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