DIGESTIVE SYSTEM (M1)

- Digestion is important for breaking down food into nutrients, which the body uses for
energy, growth, and cell repair. Food and drink must be changed into smaller molecules
of nutrients before the blood absorbs them and carries them to cells throughout the body.
The body breaks down nutrients from food and drink into carbohydrates, protein, fats,
and vitamins
- digestive system is a group of organs working together to convert food into energy and
basic nutrients to feed the entire body. The Digestive System is made up of the
GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT—also called as the digestive tract or GI tract,
where the food passes through. The human digestive tract is a long, coiled, muscular tube
that stretches from the mouth to the anus that is about nine meters long
FOUR MAJOR PROCESSES
1. Ingestion
- The first function of the digestive system is ingestion, or the intake of food.
- process of eating.
- Start in the mouth where most mechanical phase of the digestion happen.
2. Digestion
3. Absorption
4. Excretion
Secretion - The digestive system secretes around 7 liters of fluids. These fluids include saliva,
mucus, hydrochloric acid, enzymes and bile. These fluids are responsible to the digestion of food
to begin.
Mixing and Movement - The digestive system uses 3 main processes to move and mix food. •
Swallowing • Peristalsis • Segmentation
3 MAIN PROCESSES TO MOVE AND MIX FOOD
Swallowing- is the process of using smooth and skeletal muscles in the mouth, tongue and
pharynx to push food out of the mouth, through the pharynx and into the esophagus.
Peristalsis- Peristalsis is an involuntary process of muscular contraction forcing the bolus (food)
down to the stomach. Involves rhythmic contractions of the longitudinal muscles in the
gastrointestinal tract.
Segmentation- only happens in small intestine, it helps to increase the absorption of nutrients by
mixing food and increasing its contact with the walls of the intestine. Involves contractions of the
circular muscles.
Digestion - Is the process of turning large pieces of food into its component chemical
2 PHASES OF DIGESTION
MECHANICAL DIGESTION - involves the breaking up of food into small pieces, pushing the
food down the food tube, and mixing with it digestive juices Begins with the chewing of food by
the teeth and is continued through the muscular mixing of food by the stomach and the intestine.
CHEMICAL DIGESTION - involves the further breaking up of the larger molecules of food
into smaller molecules by the action of digestive enzymes

MECHANICAL PHASE
- Mechanical digestion starts in the mouth (Mastication) where four kinds of teeth tear the
food into pieces
Four kinds of teeth:
1. INCISORS – thin-edged for cutting food
2. CANINES – are pointed used for tearing
3. MOLARS & PREMOLARS – specialized for crushing and grinding

CHEMICAL PHASE
- Chemical Digestion begins in the mouth with salivary amylase in saliva splitting complex
carbohydrates into simple carbohydrates. The enzymes and acid in the stomach continue
chemical digestion, but the bulk of chemical digestion takes place in the small intestine
thanks to the action of the pancreas. Our mouth has salivary glands that secrete saliva.
This saliva contains the enzyme called salivary amylase. This salivary amylase and the
enzyme called maltase enables the chemical digestion of the mouth to occur
Absorption - Once food has been reduced to its building blocks, it is ready for the body to
absorb. Absorption occurs in the small intestine with simple molecules like water and alcohol
being absorbed directly into the bloodstream.
Excretion - The final function of the digestive system is the excretion of waste in a process
known as defecation. Defecation removes indigestible substances from the body so that they do
not accumulate inside the gut.
PARTS OF THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Main Parts: Mouth Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Small Intestine Large Intestine (MPESSL)
Accessory Parts: Salivary Gland, Liver, Pancreas, Gallbladder(SLPG)
MAJOR ORGANS
1. Mouth - is the first portion of the alimentary canal that receives food and produces saliva
2 MAJOR PROCCESES
Mastication (Chewing) - Breaks down large food molecules
Secretion of Saliva - Contains salivary amylase (ptyalin) that digests starch to maltose.
Provides an alkaline medium. Lubricants and moistens food.
2. Pharynx - Serves as a passageway for air and food
- Food is propelled to the esophagus by two muscle layers
- Longitudinal inner layer
- Circular outer layer
- Food movement is by alternating contractions of the muscle layers (peristalsis)
Pharynx Anatomy
- Nasopharynx – not part of the digestive system
- Oropharynx – posterior to oral cavity
- Laryngopharynx – below the oropharynx and connected to the esophagus

3. ESOPHAGUS - It is a mucus muscular membrane lined tube.

- There occurs a process known as Peristalsis
- Delivers food to the stomach.
- Runs from pharynx to stomach through the diaphragm
- Passageway for food ONLY

4. STOMACH
- Is a sac-like organ with strong muscular walls.
- In addition to holding the food it is also a mixer and grinder.
- Has three regions: fundus, body and the pylorus.
- ENZYMATIC DIGESTION IN THE STOMACH
- The stomach secretes millions of gastric glands.
ENZYMES:
1. Amylase
2. Rennin
3. Pepsin – digests proteins
4. Lipase – fats
1. THE PARIETAL CELLS in the gastric glands secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor,
a substance needed for adequate absorption of vitamin B12.
2. THE CHIEF CELLS secrete pepsinogen (an inactive enzyme precursor). When pepsinogen
meets the acidic gastric juice, it becomes pepsin (the main digestive enzyme of the stomach).
5. Small Intestine
- The small intestine, which is about 20 feet long.
- The small intestine finishes the process of digestion, absorbs the nutrients, and passes the
residue on to the large intestine.
- The small intestine has three regions, called the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum
Duodenum- begins at the pyloric sphincter. Absorption of food also begins with the absorption
of vitamins, minerals and other nutrients.
Jejunum- runs from the duodenum to the ileum. Jejunum means “empty” in Latin. There are
small fingerlike projections in the wall of the jejunum called villi. The villi increase the surface
area of the jejunum and allows much more absorption of nutrients in this part of the small
intestine—most of the food absorption is done in this part of the digestive tract.
Ileum- The last absorption of nutrients from the food takes place here. The unabsorbed and
undigested food then passes from the ileum into the cecum, the beginning of the large intestine.
5. LARGE INTESTINE
- The large intestine forms the last part of the digestive tract.
- The large intestine can be divided into the cecum, colon, rectum and anus.
1. Cecum- a pouch or large tubelike structure in the lower abdominal cavity that receives
undigested food material from the small intestine and is considered the first region of the
large intestine.
2. Colon- the longest segment of the large intestine. The purpose of the colon is to lubricate
waste products, absorb remaining fluids and salts, and store waste products until they are
ready to be passed from the body
3. Rectum- terminal segment of the digestive system in which feces accumulate just prior
to discharge. Food wastes remain in the sigmoid colon until they are ready to be excreted
from the body.
4. Anus- terminal opening of the anal canal, the portion of the digestive tract through which
fecal material is excreted.
ACCESSORY ORGANS
1. Salivary Glands
- The salivary glands are located near the mouth.
- They produce and secrete saliva that is important to lubricate your mouth, helps
with chewing and swallowing by moistening the food
- 3 Major Pairs: Parotid Glands on the insides of the cheeks, Submandibular glands at
the floor of the mouth, Sublingual glands under the tongue
 2. Liver
- Largest organ in the mammalian body
- Makes and secretes a digestive juice called the “bile” that helps digest fats and some
vitamins.
- Bile breaks down fats into tiny droplets through emulsification.
- Process the nutrients absorbed from the small intestine.
- Roles: Regulates sugar/glucose Breaks down excess RBC Storage of blood
Detoxification Generation of heat
- Emulsification is the process by which the dispersed phase is broken up into small
droplets.
3. Pancreas
- Makes a digestive juice that break down carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
- It is an endocrine gland because it secretes insulin hormone - converts excess glucose into
glycogen for storage.
- It is also an exocrine gland because it secretes pancreatic juice in the duodenum-
pancreatic juice contains lipase , trypsin and pancreatic amylase for digestion of lipids
,proteins and starch .
- Endocrine glands release chemical substances directly into the bloodstream or tissues of
the body. The chemical substances released by the endocrine glands are known as
hormones. Exocrine glands release chemical substances through ducts to outside the
body or onto another surface within the body, exocrine glands include sweat, salivary,
mammary.
4. Gallbladder
- The gallbladder is a pear-shaped sac that is attached to the visceral surface of the liver by
the cystic duct.
- The principal function of the gallbladder is to serve as a storage reservoir for bile.
- Bile is a yellowish-green fluid produced by liver cells. The main components of bile are
water, bile salts, bile pigments, and cholesterol. •
- Bile salts act as emulsifying agents in the digestion and absorption of fats. Cholesterol
and bile pigments from the breakdown of hemoglobin are excreted from the body in the
bile.
ADDITIONAL KAALAMAN
- Special cells help absorbed nutrients cross the intestinal lining into your bloodstream.
The blood carries simple sugars, amino acids, glycerol, and some vitamins and salts to
the liver. The liver stores, processes, and delivers nutrients to the rest of your body when
needed.
- The lymph system , a network of vessels that carry white blood cells and a fluid called
lymph throughout your body to fight infection, absorbs fatty acids and vitamins.
- Hormones Cells lining your stomach and small intestine make and release hormones that
control how your digestive system works.
 - Nerves You have nerves that connect your central nervous system—your brain and spinal
cord—to your digestive system and control some digestive functions. You also have an
enteric nervous system (ENS)— nerves within the walls of your GI tract.
COMMON DISEASES
Gallstones Gallstones are hard deposits that form in your gallbladder — a small, pear-shaped
sack that stores and secretes bile for digestion.
Celiac disease is a serious sensitivity to gluten, which is a protein found in wheat, rye, and
barley. Eat gluten, and your immune system goes on the attack: It damages your villi, the finger-
like protrusions in your small intestines that help you absorb nutrients from the foods you eat.
Crohn’s disease is part of a group of digestive conditions called inflammatory bowel disease
(IBD). Crohn’s most commonly affects the terminal ileum, which connects the end of the small
bowel and the beginning of the colon, but it can affect any part of the digestive tract.
Ulcerative colitis is another inflammatory bowel disease. The symptoms of ulcerative colitis are
very similar to those of Crohn's, but the part of the digestive tract affected is solely the large
intestine, also known as the colon.
Hemorrhoids are an inflammation of the blood vessels at the end of your digestive tract. They
can be painful and itchy. Causes include chronic constipation, diarrhea, straining during bowel
movements, and a lack of fiber in your diet. Bright red blood in the toilet bowl when you move
your bowels.
Diarrhea This happens when chyme passes too rapidly (defecation). This may be caused by
anxiety, certain foods, or disease organisms that irritate the intestinal lining.
Constipation This is the result of the too slowly passing of chyme through the intestine.
Colorectal Cancer This is commonly known as the cancer of the colon and rectum.

CELL CYCLE (M2)

Divided into three main stages:
Interphase – cell grows into its mature size, makes a copy of its DNA, and prepares for
division.
Mitosis – one copy of the DNA is distributed into each of its daughter cells.
Cytokinesis – the cytoplasm divides and organelles are distributed into the two new cells.
Sister Chromatids & Chromosomes -Human somatic cells (any cell other than a gamete) have
23 pairs of chromosomes. These are called homologous chromosomes.
Chromosome Structure
INTERPHASE

Interphase is divided into three phases.

Each phase is characterized by specific processes involving different structures.
1. During the G1 (gap 1) phase, the cell grows and synthesizes proteins.
2. During the S (synthesis) phase, chromosomes replicate and divide to form identical sister
chromatids held together by a centromere.
3. During the G2 (gap 2) phase, cells continue to grow and produce the proteins necessary for
cell division.
MITOSIS
Mitosis involves the division of the nucleus into two genetically identical nuclei.
– Has four parts, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase.
- During this stage, the hereditary material of the parent cell is given to the daughter cells.
- This leads to the formation of two daughter cells containing the identical genetic
materials. (Diploid Cells)
1. PROPHASE
- Nucleus disappears
- Spindle fibers form in the cytoplasm
- Spindle fibers attach to sister chromatids
2. Metaphase
- The sister chromatids are pulled to the center of the cell
- They line up in the middle of the cell

3. Anaphase
- Spindle fibers begin to shorten
- The sister chromatids are pulled to the opposite ends of the cell
 4. Telophase
- The sister chromatids arrive at the opposite poles of the cell and begin to unravel. ●
- New nucleus begins to form

CYTOKINESIS
- Cytokinesis is the process where the cytoplasm of a single eukaryotic cell divides into
two daughter cells.
- This physical cell division typically follows mitosis and meiosis, ensuring each daughter
cell receives a nucleus

Meiosis - the process of cell division that produces haploid gametes.

Discovery of Meiosis
- In 1882, British cytologist Pierre-Joseph van Beneden found different numbers of
chromosomes in different cells
- Specifically, he observed that gametes (sperm & egg) contain half the number of
chromosomes compared to somatic cells (non-reproductive cells).
Fertilization
- Van Beneden then proposed that an egg and a sperm fuse to produce a zygote.
- The zygote contains two copies of each chromosome (one copy from the sperm and one
copy from the egg). These are called homologous chromosomes.
- Fertilization is the name for the fusion of gametes.
Reduction Division
- Since the sperm and the egg contain only half the number of chromosomes, they cannot
be formed from mitosis.
- Meiosis - the process of cell division that produces gametes with half the number of
chromosomes as somatic cells
- Cell undergoes 2 rounds of cell division: ■ Meiosis 1 ■ Meiosis 2
- Humans have 46 chromosomes in their somatic cells.
Unique Features of Meiosis
 - Feature #1 – Synapsis Following chromosome replication, the homologous
chromosomes pair all along their length. This process is called synapsis.
- Feature #2 – Crossing Over While the homologous chromosomes are joined, crossing
over occurs. Crossing over is the exchange of genetic material from homologous
chromosomes. This causes genetic variations.
- Feature #3 – Reduction Division The chromosomes are not copied in between the two
divisions. At the end of meiosis, each cell contains one half the genetic material. (haploid
or “n”)
Meiosis I
- Preceded by Interphase chromosomes are replicated to form sister chromatids
- Sister chromatids are genetically identical and joined at centromere
- Single centrosome replicates, forming 2 centrosomes

Prophase I
- Individual chromosomes first become visible
- homologous chromosomes become closely associated in synapsis
- crossing over occurs
- Crossing over is a complex series of events in which DNA segments are exchanged
between nonsister or sister chromatids
Metaphase I
- The homologous chromosomes line up in the center of the cell and are still held together

Anaphase I
- Spindle fibers shorten
- The homologous chromosomes are separated (the sister chromatids are still paired)
- Independent assortment – random chromosomes move to each pole; some may be
maternal and some may be paternal
Telophase I
- The nuclear membrane reforms around each daughter nucleus
- Each new cell now contains two sister chromatids that are NOT identical due to crossing
over.

At the end of Meiosis I…

- You have made 2 cells
- Each cell contains a haploid number of chromosomes – 1 copy of each chromosome (for
humans, each haploid cell has 23 chromosomes)
- No DNA replication occurs between Meiosis I and Meiosis I ● Meiosis II resembles
normal, mitotic division
Prophase II
- Nuclear membrane breaks down again

Metaphase II
- The chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell.

Anaphase II
- The spindle fibers shorten and the sister chromatids move to opposite poles.
Telophase II
- Nuclear envelope re-forms around the four sets of daughter chromosomes.

At the end of Meiosis II…

- At the end of Meiosis II, there are 4 haploid cells. (only 1 copy of each chromosome) ○
(for humans, each haploid cell has 23 chromosomes)
- No two of these haploid cells are alike due to crossing over. ○ This is why you and your
siblings are genetically unique!
Cancer and cell cycle regulation
- Some stages of the cell cycle have checkpoints in between. Cyclins and Kinases help in
determining whether a cell is prepared to move to the next stage.
- Apoptosis – Human cells appear to be programmed to undergo many cell divisions and
then die. – This orderly programmed cell death is called apoptosis, which is different
from unintentional cell death caused by mechanical injury or infection among cells.
(Initiated by either mitochondria or lysosome)

HEREDITY
Gregor Mendel
- The Father of modern genetics and breeding.
- The first quantitative studies of inheritance were carried out by Gregor Mendel. ●
- Austrian monk. Born in 1822 to peasant parents, Mendel was educated in a
monastery and went on to study science and mathematics
- He returned to the monastery and spent the rest of his life there, eventually
becoming abbot.
- In the garden of the monastery, Mendel initiated a series of experiments on plant
hybridization.
Genetic Terms
- Genotype: genetic makeup of an organism or alleles carried by an individual or
Arrangement of genes that produces the phenotype
- Phenotype: physical characteristic or appearance of an individual
Example
- 1. Tall pea plant TT = tall (homozygous dominant)
- 2. Tall pea plant Tt = tall (heterozygous)
- 3. Dwarf pea plant tt = dwarf (homozygous recessive)
- Homozygous parents can only pass one form of an allele to their offspring.

-
- Heterozygous parents can pass either of two forms of an allele to their offspring.
 -
Dominant allele: The general term for an allele that masks the presence of another allele in the
phenotype
Recessive allele: The general term for an allele that is masked in the phenotype by the presence
of another allele.
A Punnett square is used to show the possible combinations of gametes

Three Laws of Heredity

- Law of Dominance
- Law of Segregation
- Law of Independent Assortment
Law of Dominance
- Traits are controlled by two factors that can be called “dominant” or “recessive.”
- A “dominant” trait shows if the offspring inherits at least one dominant factor from one
parent.
- A “recessive” trait shows only if the offspring inherits two recessive factors, one from
each parent.
- When two different genes (called alleles) for a trait are present in an organism, one will
be dominant and show up, while the other (called recessive) will be hidden.
- EXAMPLE
- A = gene for tall plants (dominant)
- a = gene for short plants (recessive)
- If a plant has these genes:
- AA → Tall (both dominant)
- Aa → Tall (dominant hides the recessive one)
- aa → Short (no dominant gene, so recessive shows)
Law of Segregation
- Everyone has a pair of factors controlling each trait, one inherited from each biological
parent.
- During the formation of gametes (sex cells) these two factors separate. Only one ends up
in each sex cell.
- When organisms make babies (through reproduction), they pass on only one of their
two genes (alleles) for each trait — and it's random which one gets passed on.
- EXAMPLE:
- Aa (A = red apple, a = green apple)
- When this parent makes a reproductive cell (like a sperm or egg), it will only give:
- either A OR a, not both.
- So the baby could get:
- A from one parent and a from the other → Aa
- or maybe a from both → aa
- or A from both → AA
- It all depends on how the genes segregate (separate) when the reproductive cells form
- A Punnet square is one way to predict the outcome of a cross by showing all the
possible combinations of all the possible gametes.
 -
Law of Independent Assortment
- When genetic factors segregate in the gametes, they segregate independently of one
another.
- A dominant allele for one trait does not guarantee inheritance of a dominant allele for a
different trait
- Genes for different traits are passed on independently of each other — they don’t
stick together.
- EXAMPLE
- Seed shape: Round (R) or Wrinkled (r)
- Seed color: Yellow (Y) or Green (y)
- A plant with genes RrYy can pass on any combo of one shape gene and one color gene:
- R and Y
- R and y
- r and Y
- r and y
- The shape gene and the color gene assort independently, meaning they mix in random
combinations.
 BIODIVERSITY
- The variety of life on earth that includes all species of plants, animals, other organisms
and the ecosystems within which they live and interact.
- It's a key indicator of the health of an ecosystem.
- According to IUCN in 1998, “the variety and variability of species of their population,
the variety of species of their life forms, the diversity of the complex association with
species with their interaction and their ecological process which influences perform.\
THREE TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY
1. DIVERSITY OF GENES
- The diversity of the organisms as a result of gene content is known as genetic diversity.
- refers to the variety of genes within a species, influencing their ability to adapt to changing
environments.
2. DIVERSITY OF SPECIES - The diversity of the organisms at species level is known as
species diversity.
- refers to the variety of different species in an ecosystem, encompassing the number and types
of organisms

3. DIVERSITY OF ECOSYSTEM - Diversity of organisms as a result of different types of

ecosystem is known as ecological diversity.
- refers to the variety of ecosystems in each place, including different types of habitats and their
interactions.

IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY
1. Ecological Stability • Every species has a specific role in an ecosystem. They capture and
store energy and also produce and decompose organic matter. • The ecosystem supports the
services without which humans cannot survive. A diverse ecosystem is more productive and can
withstand environmental stress.
2. Economic Importance - Biodiversity is a reservoir of resources for the manufacture of food,
cosmetic products and pharmaceuticals.
- Crops livestock, fishery, and forests are a rich sources of food. • Wild plants such as bayabas
and sambong plant are used for medicinal purposes.
- Wood, fibres, perfumes, lubricants, rubber, resins, and cork are all derived from different plant
species.
- The national parks and sanctuaries are a source of tourism. They are a source of beauty and joy
for many people
3. Ethical Importance - All species have a right to exist. Humans should not cause their
voluntary extinction. Biodiversity preserves different cultures and spiritual heritage. Therefore, it
is very important to conserve biodiversity
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
1. Habitat Loss • Habitat Destruction is the complete elimination of a localized or regional
ecosystem as a result of either anthropogenic or natural activities. • Habitat fragmentation
divides the resident species into two groups, leading to reduced reproductive ability and
population decline.
2. Pollution - Pollution means any substance which is present in the environment having
harmful effects.
- Types: Air, Soil and Water
3. Overexploitation of Natural Resources - Overexploitation (unsustainable use) occurs when
biodiversity is depleted faster than it can be replaced, leading to species extinction over time.
4. Climate Change-Rising Ocean temperatures impact herbivores and their foraging behaviors.
Rising temperatures lead to the spread of infections, increasing their virulence and decreasing
host resilience in macroalgae. Climate change affects rainfall patterns, resulting in less
sedimentation and nutrient run-off in low rainfall regions and more in high rainfall regions.
Climate Change -Ocean Acidification. The ocean's ability to absorb CO2 declines as ocean
acidification rises.
- Global warming melts ice caps, causing sea levels to rise and submerge low-lying places
around the world.
5. Invasive Species - Invasive species are not native to a specific location and they tend to grow
rapidly and hence these are also known as aggressive species.
- These species compete with the endemic species for resources. This results in endemic species
being depleted of the resources.
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
1. In-situ conservation involves protecting species in their natural habitats.
- This approach: Preserves entire ecosystems, including flora, fauna, and their intricate
relationships.
-Utilizes protected areas such as national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and biosphere reserves.
- Maintains natural evolutionary processes and genetic diversity.
- Supports community-based conservation initiatives.
2. Ex-situ conservation focuses on protecting species outside their natural habitats. \
-This method: Involves facilities like zoos, botanical gardens, and gene banks. • Provides a safety
net for species facing imminent threats.
-Includes captive breeding programs for endangered species.
Supports research and potential reintroduction efforts conservation initiatives .

TAXONOMY
- The classification and naming of organisms, called taxonomy, organizes life forms using
a hierarchical system with scientific names, like genus and species, ensuring a consistent
understanding among scientists worldwide.
 -
CAROLUS LINNAEUS - He was a Swedish doctor, botanist, and explorer who extensively
studied taxonomy.
- He made two major contribution to the subject that deemed him as the” Father of Modern
Taxonomy”, namely the Linnean Classification System and the Binomial system of naming
species
- DID KING PHILIP CAME OVER FOR GOOD STEAK
- Phylum – Backbone
- Domain – Appearance or trait
- Class – Mammary glands
- Family – Upright
- Genus – Closely related
- Species – Most specific
- GENUS + SPECIES = SCIENTIFIC NAME
The Linnaean classification system
- provides a hierarchical structure for the naming and classification of all living beings.
- It is used to classify species of animals along different classification levels (called taxa).
- It is important because it provides a universal system of classification common to all
scientists, and because it allows close relations between living organisms to be examined.
 Binomial nomenclature - gives each species a unique, two-word Latin name consisting
of the genus name and the species name.
- An example is Homo sapiens, the two-word Latin name for humans. It literally means
“wise human.” This is a reference to our big brains.
LEVELS OF CLASSIFICATION
1. Domain: The highest and most inclusive rank. There are three domains: Archaea, Bacteria,
and Eukarya. Domains categorize organisms based on cell type and genetic characteristics.
2. Kingdom: Subdivisions within domains. For example, the domain Eukarya includes
kingdoms like Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, and Protista.
3. Phylum (or Division for plants): Groups organisms within a kingdom based on major
structural or functional similarities. For example, Chordata is a phylum in the kingdom Animalia.
4. Class: A more specific group within a phylum. For instance, Mammalia is a class within the
phylum Chordata.
5. Order: Groups families with shared characteristics. For example, Primates is an order within
the class Mammalia.
6. Family: Includes one or more genera that share closer similarities. For instance, Hominidae is
a family in the order Primates.
7. Genus: A group of closely related species. For example, Panthera is a genus that includes
lions and tigers.
8. Species: The most specific level, referring to a group of organisms capable of interbreeding
and producing fertile offspring. For example, Homo sapiens is the species name for humans.

ECOSYSTEM
Energy flows through an ecosystem in only one direction.
Energy is passed from organisms at one trophic level or energy level to organisms in the next
trophic level.
So, animals at the second trophic level have only about 10% as much energy available to them as
do organisms at the first trophic level.
Producers - are organisms that produce food for themselves and other organisms. They use
energy and simple inorganic molecules to make organic compounds.
- The stability of producers is vital to ecosystems because all organisms need organic
molecules.
Producers are also called autotrophs.
There are two basic types of autotrophs:
1. Photoautotrophs use energy from sunlight to make food by photosynthesis. They include
plants, algae, and certain bacteria.
2. Chemoautotrophs use energy from chemical compounds to make food by chemosynthesis.
They include some bacteria and also archaea
Consumers - are organisms that depend on other organisms for food. They take in organic
molecules by essentially “consuming” other living things.
- They include all animals and fungi.
- They also include many bacteria and even a few plants
KINDS OF CONSUMERS
1. Herbivores consume producers such as plants or algae. They are a necessary link between
producers and other consumers. Examples include deer, rabbits, and mice.
2. Carnivores consume animals. Examples include lions, polar bears, hawks, frogs, salmon,
and spiders. Carnivores that are unable to digest plants and must eat only animals are called
obligate carnivores. Other carnivores can digest plants but do not commonly eat them.
3. Omnivores consume both plants and animals. They include humans, pigs, brown bears,
gulls, crows, and some species of fish.
Decomposers - break down the remains and other wastes and release simple inorganic
molecules back to the environment. Producers can then use the molecules to make new
organic compounds. The stability of decomposers is essential to every ecosystem.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF DECOMPOSERS:
1. Scavengers consume the soft tissues of dead animals. Examples of scavengers include
vultures, raccoons, and blowflies.
2. Detritivores consume detritus—the dead leaves, animal feces, and other organic debris
that collects on the soil or at the bottom of a body of water. On land, detritivores include
earthworms, millipedes, and dung beetles. In water, detritivores include “bottom feeders”
such as sea cucumbers and catfish.
3. Saprotrophs are the final step in decomposition. They feed on any remaining organic
matter that is left after other decomposers do their work. Saprotrophs include fungi, bacteria,
and single-celled protozoa. Fungi are the only organisms that can decompose wood.

Materials Cycle in an Ecosystem

Biogeochemical cycle, any of the natural pathways by which essential elements of living
matter are circulated. The term biogeochemical is a contraction that refers to the
consideration of the biological, geological, and chemical aspects of each cycle. It describes
the movement and transformation of chemical elements and compounds between living
organisms, the atmosphere, and the Earth's crust.
CHNOPS: Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, Sulfur
Carbon Cycle
- Circulation of carbon in various forms through nature. Carbon is a constituent of all
organic compounds, many of which are essential to life on Earth. Carbon is an integral
component of every life form on earth. From proteins and lipids to even our DNA.

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Phosphorus Cycle
- Circulation of phosphorus in various forms through nature. Of all the elements
recycled in the biosphere, phosphorus is the scarcest and therefore the one most limiting
in any given ecological system. It is indispensable to life, being intimately involved in
energy transfer and in the passage of genetic information in the deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) of all cells.
Nitrogen Cycle

- Circulation of nitrogen in various forms through nature. The majority of Earth's

atmosphere (78%) is atmospheric nitrogen, making it the largest source of nitrogen.
However, atmospheric nitrogen has limited availability for biological use, leading to a
scarcity of usable nitrogen in many types of ecosystems.

Oxygen Cycle
- Circulation of oxygen in various forms through nature. Free in the air and dissolved
in water, oxygen is second only to nitrogen in abundance among uncombined elements in
the atmosphere. Plants and animals use oxygen to respire and return it to the air and water
as carbon dioxide (CO2).
Water Cycle

- Circulation of water (H2O) in various forms through nature. Also known as the
hydrologic cycle, is the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the Earth's
surface, involving processes like evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and runoff.