Doon International School

ACADEMIC YEAR : 2024-2025

PROJECT REPORT ON
“PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT”

SUBMITTED BY : Bidisha Sahoo

SUBJECT : PHYSICS
CLASS : XII
ROLL NO :

UNDER THE GUIDENCE OF :

Mrs. SWARNAMAYEE SAMANTARA

 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Bidisha Sahoo of class
XII has completed the project work in
PHYSICS in the year 2024-2025 on “
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT” under the
guidance of Mrs.Swarnamayee Samantara
madam as prescribed by CBSE course.

Internal Examiner Principal’s Signature

School Stamp
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I,BIDISHA SAHOO of class XII

would like to express our sincere
gratitude to our physics teacher
MRS.SWARNAMAYEE SAMANTARA ,
for her vital support, guidance and
encouragement without which this
project would not have come forth.
We would also like to express our
gratitude to our school DOON
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL
BHUBANESWAR for letting us use
the school laboratory.
 INDEX
SL PAGE
DESCRIPTION
NO NO

1 HISTORY 05

2 WHAT IS PHOTON.? 07

3 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT 08

EXPRIMENTAL SET-UP TO STUDY PHOTOELECTRIC

4 10
EFFECT
EFFECT OF INTENSITY, FREQUENCY,POTENTIAL ON
5 11
P.E. CURRENT

6 LAWS OF PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION 15

7 EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION 16

VERIFICATION OF LAWS OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

8 18
BASED ON EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION

9 APPLICATION OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT 19

10 BIBLIOGRAPHY 20
 History of Photoelectric
Effect:
Before Albert Einstein explained the matter, several
scientists made similar observations but were unable to
clarify the concept. In the 1800s, James Clark Maxwell
and Hendrik Lorentz of Scottish and Dutch origin
resolved that light behaves like a wave. The theory was
proven when light waves demonstrated interference,
scattering, and diffraction. German physicist Heinrich
Rudolf Hertz, in 1887, discovered the photoelectric
effect. Regarding the theory of radio waves, Heinrich’s
observation claimed that sparking takes place when two
metal electrodes are shone with ultraviolet light, there is
a voltage change because of the light.

In 1899, JJ Thompson discovered that if ultraviolet light is

being hit on a metal surface, then it causes electron
ejection. Another scientist Philipp Lenard, in 1902,
clarified the connection between electricity and light,
which further proved the theory of the photoelectric
effect. There are further studies conducted on the
subject that strengthened the connection between
matter which can’t be explained by physics and light.
This relation described
light as an electromagnetic wave. Einstein conveyed
that light is made up of small packets, which were
initially called quanta but later named photons.

Theoretical studies were done by Arthur Compton in

1922 further proved that X-rays could be treated as
photons. He earned the Nobel Prize in 1927 for the
same. In 1931, Ralph Howard Fowler did theoretical
studies to link photoelectric currents with metal
temperatures.
 Photon
𝒉𝒄
 A packet or bundle of energy is called a photon.

𝜆
 Energy of a photon is E = hν =
where h is the Planck’s constant, ν is the frequency of the
radiation or photon, c is the speed of light (e.m. wave) and λ is
the wavelength.

Properties of photons:

i) A photon travels at a speed of light c in vacuum. (i.e. 3 x 10-8 m/s)

ii) It has zero rest mass. i.e. the photon can not exist at rest.

iii)
𝑬
The kinetic mass of a photon is, m = 𝒉
= 𝐜𝜆
𝑪

iv)
𝑬
The momentum of a photon is, p = 𝒉
=𝜆
𝒄

v) Photons travel in a straight line.

vi) Energy of a photon depends upon frequency of the photon; so the

energy of the photon does not change when photon travels from
one medium to another.

vii) Wavelength of the photon changes in different media; so,

velocity of a photon is different in different media.

viii) Photons are electrically neutral.

ix) Photons may show diffraction under given conditions.

x) Photons are not deviated by magnetic and electric fields.

 Photoelectric Effect:
 The phenomenon of emission of electrons from mainly
metal surfaces exposed to light energy (X – rays, γ –
rays, UV rays, Visible light and even Infra Red rays) of
suitable frequency is known as photoelectric effect.

 The electrons emitted by this effect are called

photoelectrons.

 The current constituted by photoelectrons is known

as photoelectric current.

Note: Non metals also show photoelectric effect.

Liquids and gases also show this effect but to limited
extent.
 Chaíacteíistics Of Photoelectíic
Effect
 ľhe thíeshold fíequency vaíies with mateíial, it is
diffeíent foí diffeíent mateíials.
 ľhe photoelectíic cuííent is diíectly píopoítional to
the light intensity.
 ľhe kinetic eneígy of the photoelectíons is diíectly
píopoítional to the light fíequency.
 ľhe stopping potential is diíectly píopoítional to the
fíequency and the píocess is instantaneous.

Ïactoís affecting Photoelectíic

Effect
1. ľhe intensity of incident íadiation.
2. A potential diffeíence between metal plate and collectoí.
3. Fíequency of incident íadiation.

Conditions foí the Photoelectíic

Effect
ľhe minimum condition íequiíed foí the emission of
electíons fíom the outeímost shell of an atom is that the
fíequency of incident íays should be veíy high. ľhis will
píovide eneígy to the electíon to leave its outeímost shell.

Impoítance of the Photoelectíic

Effect
ľhe study of the photoelectíic effect has led to expanding ouí
undeístanding of the quantum natuíe of light and electíons. It
has fuítheí influenced the foímation of the concept of wave-
paíticle
duality. ľhe photoelectíic effect is also widely used to
investigate electíon eneígy levels in the matteí
Experimental Set-up to study
Photoelectric Effect:

 Glass transmits only visible and infra-red lights

but not UV light.

 Quartz transmits UV light.

 When light of suitable frequency falls on the

metallic cathode, photoelectrons are emitted.
These photoelectrons are attracted towards the
+ve anode and hence photoelectric current is
constituted.
Effect of (Intensity) of Incident Light on
Photoelectric Current:

 For a fixed frequency, the photoelectric current

increases linearly with increase in intensity of
incident light.

Effect of (Potential) on Photoelectric

Current:

 For a fixed frequency and intensity of incident light,

the photoelectric current increases with increase in
+ve potential applied to the anode.

 When all the photoelectrons reach the plate A, current

becomes maximum and is known as saturation
current.
 When the potential is decreased, the current
decreases but does not become zero at zero potential.

 This shows that even in the absence of accelerating

potential, a few photoelectrons manage to reach the
plate on their own due to their K.E.

 When –ve potential is applied to the plate A w.r.t. C,

photoelectric current becomes zero at a particular
value of –ve potential called stopping potential or cut-
off potential.

 Intensity of incident light does not affect the stopping

potential.
Effect of Frequency of Incident Light on
Photoelectric Current:

 For a fixed intensity of incident light, the photoelectric

current does not depend on the frequency of the
incident light. Because, the photoelectric current
simply depends on the number of photoelectrons
emitted and in turn on the number of photons incident
and not on the energy of photons.

Effect of Frequency of Incident Light on

Stopping Potential:

 For a fixed intensity of incident light, the photoelectric

current increases and is saturated with increase in
+ve potential applied to the anode.
 However, the saturation current is same for different
frequencies of the incident lights.
 When potential is decreased and taken below zero,
photoelectric current decreases to zero but at
different stopping potentials for different
frequencies.

(Higher the frequency, higher the stopping potential. i.e. VS α ν)

 Threshold Frequency:

 The graph between stopping potential and

frequency does not pass through the origin. It
shows that there is a minimum value of
frequency called threshold frequency below
which photoelectric emission is not possible
however high the intensity of incident light may
be. It depends on the nature of the metal
emitting photoelectrons.
Laws of Photoelectric Emission:

i) For a given substance, there is a minimum value of

frequency of incident light called threshold frequency
below which no photoelectric emission is possible,
howsoever, the intensity of incident light may be.

ii) The number of photoelectrons emitted per second (i.e.

photoelectric current) is directly proportional to the
intensity of incident light provided the frequency is
above the threshold frequency.

iii) The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is

directly proportional to the frequency provided the
frequency is above the threshold frequency.

iv) The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is

independent of the intensity of the incident light.

v) The process of photoelectric emission is

instantaneous. i.e. as soon as the photon of suitable
frequency falls on the substance, it emits
photoelectrons.

vi) The photoelectric emission is one-to-one. i.e. for every

photon of suitable frequency one electron is emitted.
Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation:
When a photon of energy hν falls on a metal surface,
the energy of the photon is absorbed by the electron
and is used in two ways:

 A part of energy is used to overcome the surface

barrier and come out of the metal surface. This part of
the energy is called ‘work function’ (Ф = hν0).

 The remaining part of the energy is used in giving a

velocity ‘v’ to the emitted photoelectron. This is equal
to the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons
( ½ mv2 max ) where ‘m’ is mass of the photoelectron.

According to law of conservation of energy,

hν = Ф + ½ mv2max
= hν0 + ½ mv2max

½ mv2 max = h ( ν - ν0 )
 Relationship between the
Ïíequency of the Incident Photon
and the Kinetic Eneígy of the
Emitted Photoelectíon :
ľheíefoíe, the íelationship between the eneígy of the
photon and the kinetic eneígy of the emitted
photoelectíon can be wíitten as follows.
Ephoton = Φ + Eelectíon
⇒ h𝜈 = h𝜈th + ½mev2
Wheí
e,
 Ephoton denotes the eneígy of the incident photon, which is
equal to h𝜈.
 Φ denotes the thíeshold eneígy of the metal suíface, which
is equal to h𝜈th.
 Eelectíon denotes the kinetic eneígy of the photoelectíon,
which is equal to ½mev2 (me = mass of electíon =
9.1*10-31 kg).

 If the eneígy of the photon is less than the thíeshold eneígy,

theíe will be no emission of photoelectíons (since the
attíactive foíces
between the nuclei and the electíons cannot be oveícome).

photoelectíic effect will not occuí if 𝜈 < 𝜈th. If the fíequency of

ľhus, the

the photon is exactly equal to the thíeshold fíequency (𝜈 = 𝜈th),

theíe will be an emission of photoelectíons, but theií kinetic
eneígy will be equal to zeío. An illustíation detailing the effect of
the fíequency of the incident light on the kinetic eneígy of the
photoelectíon is píovided below.

Verification of Laws of Photoelectric Emission
based on Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation:

½ mv2 max = h ( ν - ν0 )

i) If ν < ν0, then ½ mv2 max is negative, which is

not possible. Therefore, for photoelectric
emission to take place ν > ν0.

ii) Since one photon emits one electron, so the

number photoelectrons emitted per second is
directly proportional to the intensity of incident
light.

iii) It is clear that ½ mv2 max α ν as h and ν0 are

constant. This shows that K.E. of the
photoelectrons is directly proportional to the
frequency of the incident light.

iv) Photoelectric emission is due to collision

between a photon and an electron. As such there
can not be any significant time lag between the
incidence of photon and emission of
photoelectron. i.e. the process is instantaneous.
It is found that delay is only 10-8 seconds.
 Application of Photoelectric
Effect:

1. Automatic fire alarm

2. Automatic burglar alarm
3. Scanners in Television transmission
4. Reproduction of sound in cinema film
5. In paper industry to measure the thickness of paper
6. To locate flaws or holes in the finished goods
7. In astronomy
8. To determine opacity of solids and liquids
9. Automatic switching of street lights
10.To control the temperature of furnace
11.Photometry
12.Beauty meter – To measure the fair complexion of skin
13.Light meters used in cinema industry to check the light
14.Photoelectric sorting
15.Photo counting
16.Meteorology
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.NCERT Physics Textbook for Class 12, Part II

2.Pradeep’s New Course Physics for Class 12
3.S.L. Arora, Physics for Class 12
4.Lakhmir Singh and Manjit Kaur, Physics for Class
12
5.HC Verma, Concepts of Physics, Part 2
6.Modern’s ABC of Physics
7.Dinesh Physics for Class 12
8.Comprehensive Physics for Class 12 by Laxmi
Publications
9.Evergreen Physics for Class 12
10. All-in-One Physics by Arihant Experts
THANK
YOU